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The paper makes an indetail overview of the structure of the trade exchange of goods of Macedonia and explores the determinants of its bilateral trade flows using the gravity model. The analysis includes data on 40 trade partners of Macedonia in the period from 2005-2019. The used variables in the model are: GDP per capita difference, population, distance and relative endowments of factors of production (capital, land and labour). In most of the analyzed regressions the coefficients on determinants such as GDP per capita difference and population are positive and their impact upon the bilateral trade (as dependent variable) is statistically significant. Intensity of Macedonian trade decreases in regard of the distance from a trade partner and increases in partner’s size – the country tends to trade more with lager countries. In our analysis we included three dummy variables such as: membership in the EU and in CEFTA-2006 and common language. The impact of the possible membership in the EU is clearly positive and statistically significant. Being a candidate country for full EU membership, Macedonia trades more with EU trade partners rather than with the neibouring countries, members of CEFTA-2006. Keywords: bilateral trade, gravity model, trade partners, Republic of North Macedonia, European Union, CEFTA-2006

В статті проведено дослідження діяльності підприємств дріжджової промисловості на світових ринках. наведена характеристика дріжджової продукції та її систематизація. Більш детально розглянуті українські дріжджові компанії та їх присутність на світових ринках. Охарактеризовані лідери міжнародного ринку дріжджової галузі.Зроблені прогнози щодо розвитку експортної діяльності підприємств дріжджової промисловості. Зростання цього ринку в основному пояснюється збільшенням попиту на харчові продукти. The article studies the activities of yeast industry enterprises in the world markets. The given characteristics of yeast production and its systematization. Highlighting the world producers of yeast products, as well as the largest enterprises producing various types of yeast in Ukraine. Using the method of collecting and processing data, an analysis of the activities of yeast producers in international markets was carried out. The Ukrainian yeast companies and their presence in the world markets are considered in more detail. The leaders of the international yeast industry market are characterized. The volumes of yeast production in Ukraine are analyzed. Focused on the research of the company "Company BALEX". Discovered to which countries the company is exporting, as well as the main trading countries the partners of this company. The strengths and weaknesses of the company, as well as the opportunities and threats for the international business of the company producing and selling yeast products, have been identified. Forecasts made for the development of export activities of yeast industry enterprises. The growth of this market is mainly due to an increase in demand for food products such as baked goods (bread, rolls, donuts, pizza, etc.) and beverages (alcoholic and nonalcoholic) that contain special yeast as a main ingredient. Conclusions are made about the feasibility of increasing production volumes and increasing competitiveness in order to expand the export activities of enterprises that produce and sell yeast products.

Tema rada obrađuje Japan kao jednu od najrazvijenijih i utjecajnijih zemalja svijeta. Japan je otočna država koja se nalazi na istočnoj obali Azije. Geografski položaj svrstava ga u blizinu najrazvijenijih zemalja svijeta, kao što su Kina, Singapur, Hong Kong te Južna Koreja. Japan dobro iskorištava svoj geografski položaj te su upravo susjedne zemlje, uz SAD, njegovi najveći trgovinski partneri. Iako ima oskudne prirodne resurse Japan dobro iskorištava svoje potencijale. Prema izvozu i uvozu roba i usluga nalazi se na visokom 4. mjestu svjetske ljestvice. Svoju trgovinu temelji na izvozu automobila, električnih uređaja, plastike, metala. No njegov najveći potencijal je zapravo ljudski potencijal. Mnogo ulažu u obrazovanje te se njihov obrazovni sustav smatra jednim od najboljih u svijetu. Zahvaljujući činjenici da je njihov obrazovni sustav tako dobar, stanovnici Japana su među najobrazovanijima na svijetu. Sa sto postotnim upisom u obvezne razrede i nultim postotkom nepismenih. Također, uspjeh Japana je i stopa nezaposlenosti koja iznosi niskih 2,41%. Osim do sad navedenih činjenica još jedan od razloga razvijenosti Japan je i izrazito stabilna ekonomija te otvorenost prema međunarodnim razmjenama i trgovini., The topic of the paper deals with Japan as one of the most developed and influential countries in the world. Japan is an island nation located on the east coast of Asia. The geographical position is close to the most developed countries in the world, such as China, Singapore, Hong Kong and South Korea. Japan makes good use of its geographical position, and has neighboring countries, along with the United States, as its main trading partners. Although it has scarce natural resources, Japan is making good use of its potential. According to exports and imports of goods and services, it is in the high 4th place in the world rankings. It bases its trade on the export of cars, electrical appliances, plastics, metals. However, His greatest potential is actually human potential. They invest a lot in education and their education system is considered one of the best in the world. Thanks to the fact that they have high quality education system, the people of Japan are among the most educated in the world, with one hundred percent enrollment in compulsory classes and zero percent illiteracy. Also, Japan's big success is the unemployment rate, which is at low 2.41%. One of the reasons for Japan's development is its extremely stable economy and openness to international trade and commerce.

International audience; Imbs and Pauwels (2020) introduce a measure of openness based on indirect trade. This paper illustrates the differences in the Korean patterns of trade when openness is measured using conventional measures based on direct trade, and when it is measured using this measure of indirect trade, labeled Export Intensity (EI). According to EI, the Republic of Korea (Korea) has been following an upward trend in openness since 2000 and even after 2010. This stands in contrast with most other large trading countries, including China and Germany. We show this is a reflection of Koreas integration with a few partner economies, most notably China. Vertical integration is considerable between Korea and China, in manufacturing and in services alike. The extent of this integration would be invisible on the basis of conventional measures of openness.

The high level of exports and their product and market concentration exposes the Democratic Republic of Congo to the economic fluctuations of the country's trade partners. This paper uses the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development trade data set to analyze the Democratic Republic of Congo's export patterns for the period 1960-2014. The data confirm that the country's exports remain highly concentrated. The product concentration on minerals is high and reaches exceptional levels. The geographic concentration is also high, while there is a shift in destinations. Hence, EU27, traditionally the main market destination for the Democratic Republic of Congo, lost its importance to China for most of the past decade. This trend continued to increase in the past few years from 2010 to 2013. The clear prevalence of commodity products within the Democratic Republic of Congo's exports and the higher exposure to the Chinese economic cycle are sources of vulnerability. The empirical analysis indicates that the country's exports appear to be significantly sensitive to foreign demand fluctuations. This exposure increases the volatility of the country's macroeconomic framework to exogenous shocks, with negative consequences on growth in gross domestic product and on external balances. The analysis concludes that increasing the Democratic Republic of Congo's resilience requires product and market diversification of exports. This diversification requires improvements in the investment climate and business environment, with emphasis on skills and infrastructure.

How do global supply chain linkages modify countries' incentives to impose import protection? Are these linkages empirically important determinants of trade policy? To address these questions, this paper introduces supply chain linkages into a workhorse terms-of-trade model of trade policy with political economy. Theory predicts that discretionary final goods tariffs will be decreasing in the domestic content of foreign-produced final goods. Provided foreign political interests are not too strong, final goods tariffs will also be decreasing in the foreign content of domestically-produced final goods. The paper tests these predictions using newly assembled data on bilateral applied tariffs, temporary trade barriers, and value-added contents for 14 major economies over the 1995-2009 period. There is strong support for the empirical predictions of the model. The results imply that global supply chains matter for trade policy, both in principle and in practice.

Once concentrated among a few large economies, global flows of goods, services, and capital now reach an ever larger number of economies worldwide. Global trade in goods and services increased 10 times between 1980 and 2011, while FDI flows increased almost 30-fold. The sales from foreign-owned firms amount to $26 trillion. As many as 3,000 bilateral investment treaties have been signed to create the framework of deep agreements needed not only to facilitate the global movement of final goods and services but also to internationalize entire processes of production. All these flows have grown over time, creating increasingly dense and complex networks. This note is intended provide an overview of SACU countries’ participation and performance in GVCs, drawing on several data sources and indicators, and most importantly the recently released 189-country Eora multi-region-input-output (MRIO) database (Lenzen et al. 2012, 2013). Following this introduction, the note is structured in five additional sections. Section two discusses in greater detail the scope of the report, including the data sources and methodological approaches, as well as their respective limitations. Section three looks at structural integration in trade, including the degree to which SACU countries import and export intermediates. Section four analyzes trends in value-added exports as a first step in exploring GVC participation. Section five hones in on the core measures of GVC participation and a brief analysis of SACU countries’ position in GVCs. Finally, section six concludes by bringing together the main findings from the analysis.

This background paper provides information on the study of the Group of 20 (G-20) and challenges faced by low-income developing countries (LIDCs). The study analyzes LIDCs development challenges and how G-20 economic policies can be coordinated so they can contribute to creating an enabling environment for their development. The focus of the paper is the role that trade and investment policies of G-20 countries play in this context. The paper is composed of three parts 1) the characteristics of LIDCs integration in the world economy, 2) the evolution of G-20 policies that affect LIDCs integration, and 3) the potential for changes in the G-20 trade and investment policy landscape to benefit LIDCs.

Economic activity in many African countries remains highly concentrated and exports are often dominated by mineral resources or a few primary products. The World Bank’s 2011 report on light manufacturing in Africa identified poor trade logistics performance as a constraint that especially penalized African exporters that relied on imported inputs, very often making them uncompetitive. The report highlighted research that demonstrated how poor logistics added roughly a 10 percent production cost penalty in Ethiopia, Tanzania, and Zambia across the five subsectors of light manufacturing where opportunities were identified as greatest in Africa. The report outlined how in Africa poor trade logistics increase production costs (often wiping out the labor cost advantage) and lead to long and unreliable delivery times, making local firm’s unattractive suppliers to lead firms in global value chains (GVCs), particularly for light manufacturing. This note seeks to contribute to a review of progress in achieving export diversification through greater exports of light manufacturing products. It looks at recent trends in the exports of the five categories of light manufacturing identified as having strong potential in Africa. The note reviews progress in improving trade logistics in Sub-Saharan Africa, with a focus on the three countries highlighted in the light manufacturing study: Ethiopia, Tanzania, and Zambia, and additionally Kenya and Uganda.

The main message of this report is that if Kazakhstan wants to take advantage of global integration and diversification opportunities, the government needs to improve its trade policy framework, its management, and its regulations. It is also finalizing accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) while its trade strategy includes a number of free trade agreements to be negotiated. It is an active member of the Central Asia Region Economic Cooperation (CAREC). This report is composed of three policy notes that discuss how to improve the trade policy framework, management, and regulations: note one is on the trade policy framework and recommends joining the WTO on a tariff schedule that is more liberal than Russia’s; note two postulates that to benefit more fully from the WTO membership and future regional or bilateral agreements, the institutional framework for trade policy management will need a clearer strategic vision, better coordination within the government and with private sector, and enhanced human capacity; and note three suggests that for the private sector to benefit from global integration and diversification, the government should ease the burden of regulations that affect trade (non-tariff measures (NTMs)).

In the last decade Morocco undertook substantial, if gradual, trade liberalization by reducing tariffs, reforming trade regulations and signing free and preferential trade agreements with several regions and countries, including the United States, Turkey, the European Union and Arab countries. This paper analyzes the impact of input tariff reduction on Moroccan exporting firms through the channel of intermediate goods. Gaining access to more varied and cheaper inputs can make exporting firms more competitive, and as a result they export more. To evaluate how this policy may impact firms export performance, the paper analyzes the impact of input tariff reduction on different margins of trade with emphasis on export markets and product diversification. The identification of the effect of input tariffs on exports relies on a difference-in-difference estimator using heterogeneous access to import tariff exemption as a measure of different levels of exposure to input tariff reduction at the firm level. Overall, the analysis finds that firms that are relatively more exposed to input tariff perform better in those sectors with the largest input tariff reduction, with better access to markets, higher probability to survive when exporting new products in those sectors and higher export value growth.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior This study aims to analyze the performance of Brazilian exports, disaggregated by aggregate factor (Basic, Semi-manufactured and Manufactured), to Asia and Trade Partners NAFTA and the European Union, based on monthly data for the period January 1999 to June 2013. For this, were identified based on theoretical grounds, the main determinants and, through statistical tools, equations of short and long run for Brazilian sector exports were estimated, so that they could evaluate the elasticities quantum exported from the country. Still, were analyzed the performance and structure of Brazilian exports sector, their relationships with selected trade partners as well as their participation in world trade. For this, from an extension of the traditional theoretical model of imperfect substitutes, elaborated by Goldstein and Khan (1978), we use the method of Johansen cointegration and Error Correction Model (ECM) for determining the elasticities. Through the traditional literature of foreign trade, it was inferred that the determinants of exports are pegged to an index of income from trading partners, to index relative price of exports and the exchange rate. The results showed that the elasticities are greater than the long term to short term. Facing the sectorial impacts, the elasticities of trade with Asia and NAFTA show that the class of basic goods is more sensitive to income, while the other classes are more sensitive to exchange rate variations. On the other hand, exports to the European Union, income is the main determinant of the classes of manufactured and semimanufactured goods, while basics goods are more sensitive to exchange rates. In reference to average sectorial elasticities, one can say that income is the main determinant of basic products exports, while the classes of semi-manufactured and manufactured goods are more sensitive to changes in price levels. Finally, the negative effect of exchange rate volatility, verified is be a dynamic mainly short run. O presente estudo tem como objetivo analisar o desempenho das exportações brasileiras, desagregadas por fator agregado (Básicos, Semimanufaturados e Manufaturados), para a Ásia e os Blocos Econômicos Nafta e União Europeia, a partir de dados mensais para o período de janeiro de 1999 a junho de 2013. Para isso, foram identificados, com base nos fundamentos teóricos, os principais determinantes e, através do ferramental estatístico, foram estimadas equações de curto e longo prazo para as exportações setoriais brasileiras, para que se pudesse avaliar as elasticidades do quantum exportado do país. Ainda, foram analisados o desempenho e a estrutura das exportações setoriais brasileiras, suas relações com os parceiros comerciais selecionados, bem como sua participação no comércio mundial. Para tanto, a partir de uma extensão do tradicional modelo teórico de substitutos imperfeitos, elaborado por Goldstein e Khan (1978), utiliza-se o método de cointegração de Johansen e o Modelo de Correção de Erros (ECM) para a determinação das elasticidades. Através da literatura tradicional de comércio exterior, inferiu-se que os determinantes das exportações estão atrelados a um índice de renda dos parceiros comerciais, ao índice de preço relativo das exportações e a taxa de câmbio. Os resultados mostraram que as elasticidades de longo prazo são superiores às de curto prazo. Frente aos impactos setoriais, as elasticidades do comércio com a Ásia e o Nafta mostram que a classe de produtos básicos é mais sensível à renda, enquanto que as demais classes são mais sensíveis às variações cambiais. Por outro lado, nas exportações para a União Europeia, a renda é o principal determinante das classes de manufaturados e semimanufaturados, enquanto que os produtos básicos são mais sensíveis ao câmbio. Em referência às elasticidades setoriais médias, pode-se dizer que a renda é o principal determinante das exportações de produtos básicos, enquanto que as classes de semimanufaturados e manufaturados são mais sensíveis às variações dos níveis de preços. Por fim, quanto ao impacto negativo da volatilidade cambial, verificou-se ser uma dinâmica, principalmente, de curto prazo.

The article presents the analysis of the structure of gross domestic product (GDP) in the United States within the globalized world economy. We've identified certain patterns of its distribution. It appears, that the transfer of production lines from the U.S. to developing economies is not an example of deindustrialization, but a sign of transfer from industrial society to the post-industrial one. Also outlined are the main tendencies of Russia's interests in the fields of foreign policy and economy under the current conditions, as well as possible areas of development. It turns out, that there is a lot of room for expanding cooperation with developing economies in certain industries © IDOSI Publications, 2014.

Kenya's economy has been running on one engine. Kenya's strong engine is domestic consumption, which accounts for 75 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Kenya's weak engine remains its exports, which have been declining sharply in relative importance. Kenya's top four main exports do not earn enough to pay for oil imports, not to mention other imports. It will be very difficult for Kenya to achieve high growth over an extended period of time because of its existing economic imbalances. Kenya needs to increase its export competitiveness. It is clear that Kenya's trade performance is below its potential. The objective of this overview is to provide some of that analysis and to contribute to the policy dialogue on the role of exports Kenya's future growth. This paper focuses on five issues: 1) overall trade orientation and export growth; 2) merchandise export trends; 3) merchandise exports by sector; 4) merchandise exports by destination; and 5) diversification. The growth of merchandise exports has been slow and volatile. The average annual growth rate of merchandise exports has been only 10 percent. And while countries such as Vietnam have has a distinct export growth trajectory with steady growth in merchandise exports year after year, Kenya's pattern has been rather volatile with a few good years followed by major falls. Export growth has been driven primarily by existing products in existing markets. Overall there has been little new product/new market discovery.

There is increasing evidence suggesting that climate change will negatively impact agricultural production in South Asia. Decreased domestic production may make South Asian countries more dependent on imports. The extent to which South Asia will need to increase its imports as a result of climate change will presumably depend on the degree to which the latter will affect domestic output. The effects of climate change on agriculture may well differ substantially for individual South Asian countries and indeed for regions within a given country which can be approximated by food production units. This calls for an analysis of climate change effects on trade flows under alternative trade policy regimes both for agriculture and non-agricultural sectors. The specific objectives of the paper include the following: analyze the extent to which agricultural production in South Asia and elsewhere in the world may be affected by different scenarios regarding climate change; analyze the extent to which changes in domestic production in South Asia resulting from climate change will lead to increased demand for imports by South Asian countries; analyze the effects of increased import demand in South Asia and changing exportable surpluses elsewhere on world market prices of major agricultural commodities consumed in South Asia; to the extent that South Asian governments allow transmission of changes in world market prices to domestic prices, analyze the potential welfare effects of changes in the latter; analyze if, and to what extent, worldwide trade liberalization and implementation of South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) will dampen the effects of climate change on domestic agricultural prices in South Asia. In this context, the report is organized as follows: chapter one gives introduction. Chapter two describes the methodology used - with particular attention to how different models and modeling techniques are linked to produce an as accurate as possible assessment based on state-of-the-art knowledge. Chapter three provides an up-to-date analysis of trade flows and policies, and production patterns for key food products in South Asia to explain the context in which climate change is taking place. Chapter four describes the climate change scenarios and illustrates their consequences for crop yields at a global level and for South Asia - and in particular shows the vulnerability of the region to these changes. Baseline design, simulations, and results are discussed in chapter five. The final chapter six provides a short summary, discusses the limitations of the analysis, and derives suggestions and guidelines for future research.

Zunanja trgovina je trgovina med državami in je zelo pomembna in koristna za vse države. Države Jugovzhodne Evrope so skozi zgodovino šle preko mnogih sprememb, kar je vplivalo na njihov razvoj. V 90. letih 20. stoletja so države iz socialistične družbene ureditve prešle na demokratično. To so bile države na prehodu oziroma v tranziciji. Cilj je bil, da se uvede tržno gospodarstvo in privatizacija. Gre za gospodarsko manj razvite dežele, vendar se počasi in vztrajno razvijajo ter sledijo ostalim evropskim državam. Zunanja trgovina je zanje zelo pomembna, saj gre za relativno manjše države, ki vseh dobrin ne proizvedejo same in so tako odvisne od uvoza. Prav zaradi tega je skupna vrednost uvoza mnogo višja od skupne vrednosti izvoza. Preko zunanje trgovine so te države povezane s tujino. Analizirane države menjujejo s skoraj vsemi evropskimi državami, še posebej z Italijo, Nemčijo, Rusijo in sosednimi državami, ki so nekoč pripadale skupni državi Jugoslaviji. Foreign trade is trade among countries it is very important and beneficial for every country. Throughout the history, South-East European (SEE) countries faced many changes which have influenced their development. In the nineties of the 20th century, these countries changed their social order from socialist to democratic. During the transition the introduction of a market economy and privatisation was the main objective. SEE countries are economically less developed however, they are slowly and persistently developing and thus following other European countries. Foreign trade is very important, since SEE countries are relatively small and do not produce all the goods themselves therefore, they depend on import. Consequently, the total value of imports is much higher than the total value of exports. These countries are connected to the rest of the world through foreign trade. SEE countries trade with almost all European countries, in particular with Italy, German, Russia, and the neighbouring countries which once belong to the one country -Yugoslavia.

This bachelor thesis is focused on the development of foreign trade of the Czech Republic after entry to the EU . First, there are generally characterized functions of foreign trade. Much of this work deals with the territorial and commodity structure and by using different indicators is trying to analyze them. There are also described changes in the foreign trade policy of joining the European Union.

This article presents estimates of the impact of China's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO). China is estimated to be the biggest beneficiary (US$31 billion a year from trade reforms in preparation for accession and additional gains of $10 billion a year from reforms after accession), followed by its major trading partners that also undertake liberalization, including the economies in North America, Western Europe, and Taiwan (China). Accession will boost manufacturing sectors in China, especially textiles and apparel, which will benefit directly from the removal of export quotas. Developing economies competing with China in third markets may suffer small losses. Accession will have important distributional consequences for China, with the wages of skilled and unskilled nonfarm workers rising in real terms and relative to those of farm workers. Possible policy changes, including reductions in barriers to labor mobility and improvements in rural education, could more than offset these negative impacts and facilitate the development of China's economy.