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The relationship between time preference and high school students' career choices was analyzed using the cross-lagged effects model. A significant relationship was found between time preference in the first year of high school and educational expectations in April of the third year. Furthermore, time preference in the first year of high school was influenced by academic performance in the third year of junior high school. The hypothesis that educational expectations in the first year affect time preference in the third year was not supported. The fact that time preferences determine educational expectations indicates that high school students' career choices are based on certain sets of values. However, it is conceivable that time preference in the first year of high school reflects the degree of adaptation to education up through junior high school. "Career choices based on one's values" may in fact mean that those who have adapted to schooling expect to continue their education for a longer period.

With the rising demand for virtual learning, districts are establishing virtual schools to offer more flexible education. This study investigates K-12 virtual learner characteristics, examines trends and issues in virtual academies, and outlines opportunities and challenges faced by stakeholders in a southeastern U.S. state. The study used a mixed-method design, combining quantitative survey data and qualitative interviews with virtual academy leaders. Results reveal that virtual learners opt for this mode of schooling due to busy extracurricular schedules, a desire to avoid crowded schools or health concerns. These students include those with special needs and high-achieving individuals. Collaboration between parents and teachers plays a crucial role. Essential factors include reliable internet access, teacher tech proficiency, and diverse curriculum development approaches. However, diverse curricular methods require additional implementation support. Balancing instructional flexibility with accountability poses a significant challenge. Virtual teachers need resources, professional development, and time, especially when transitioning from traditional to digital curriculum. Effective communication and interpersonal interactions are vital. Involving home learning coaches and community partnerships enhances the educational experience. While virtual schools offer flexible and personalized support, they encounter challenges related to resource access, social isolation, and student motivation.

Fluency development is one of the prominent components of a well-balanced language course. In particular, speaking fluency interests second language (L2) researchers who have continuously tried to look for the finest approach for helping L2 learners attain a certain level of fluency to achieve effective communication. To this end, the primary purpose of this research is to explore what factors affect English-speaking fluency and what strategies can effectively boost its development among a cohort of Vietnamese university students. The participants were 142 English majors who filled out a questionnaire measuring their perceived self-efficacy concerning English-speaking fluency. Four teachers and six students joined the semi-structured interviews. Quantitative and qualitative data revealed that the most influential factors were linguistic elements, followed by performance, and affective factors. The most effective strategy for enhancing fluency was task repetition. Notably, the findings revealed a mismatch between teachers' and students' understandings of speaking fluency, which may negatively impact the achievement of fluent speech. Based on these results, pedagogical implications are discussed for English teachers and students regarding fluency development.

Testing is an effective method to determine learning outcomes for knowledge and skills learning domains. The aim of this study was to examine the differences in test achievements among 50 Saudi female English major students at the College of Languages at Princess Nourah University in Riyadh. The tests were administered using two different methods: paper-based and Blackboard-based (online). Additionally, the study explored the impact of these two test methods on students' achievement in terms of course learning outcomes. The results of the study indicated that there was no significant difference between the two test methods in terms of overall test scores. However, it was found that the Blackboard-based test resulted in slightly higher scores for knowledge domain outcomes, while the paper-based test showed higher scores for skills domain outcomes. The results obtained in this study suggest that both paper-based and Blackboard-based test methods can be equally effective at assessing the general achievement of students. However, the choice of test method may have a slight impact on the specific learning outcomes being assessed, with Blackboard-based tests favouring knowledge domain outcomes and paper-based tests favouring skills domain outcomes. Furthermore, when using Blackboard-based tests, time pressure should be taken into consideration, as it is observed to significantly influence students' performance in both learning domains.

This article recommends institutional changes to higher education related to time, learning, and risk that would better serve the contemporary student population and increase opportunities for life-long and interdisciplinary learning. To begin, the changing demographic of university students will be outlined, along with suggestions about how traditional institutional arrangements are no longer conducive to optimal learning environments. Next, a review of the history of the academic year will be provided, that will show a snapshot of post-secondary academic calendars in Canada. Relatedly, a discussion of the potential drawbacks and benefits to accelerated courses will be deliberated, as well as the role of risk in terms of how this shapes students' course selection. Finally, an example of a pilot program at McMaster University, a large research-intensive university in Ontario, Canada, which is specifically designed to account for the pitfalls outlined above, will be discussed. Taken together, it will be argued that having full-course offerings on a year-round basis, providing various options for course lengths, and adjusting evaluations to reduce students' conceptions of 'risk' will better adapt institutes of higher education for the twenty-first century.

Owing to an exponential increase in the number of courses offered online, it is crucial to understand this mode of delivery on a deeper level. In this study, associations among course performance, the use of online resources (i.e., online homework assistance, practice questions and practice tests), mode of delivery (online versus in-person), and session length (Fall/Winter for 8 months versus Spring/Summer for 10 weeks) were examined. Archival data were used from an educational website for an introductory statistics course at a medium-sized Canadian university. Anonymized data were retrieved from 738 students enrolled in the course between 2018 and 2021. Course performance was measured by final course grades and use of resources was assessed in terms of the number of site visits and downloads. It was found that use of online resources was significantly and positively correlated with course performance. However, session length and mode of delivery did not yield significant differences in terms of final course grades. Future studies could examine potential moderators in the relationships between the use of resources with the session length, the delivery method, and course performance to see the effectiveness of the resources in various course delivery models (in-person, hybrid, synchronous online, asynchronous online, etc.).

The benefits of afterschool activity participation for youth development are well-documented. An interesting question dominating this field is whether there is a threshold at which point participating in too many activities (breadth) and spending too much time in those activities (intensity) is negatively associated with desirable outcomes. Using 9th grade student data (N=115,731) from three administrations of a state-wide school survey, we explore whether students' breadth and intensity of afterschool participation is associated with GPA and perceived family and community support. Findings corroborate prior research in demonstrating the association between breadth and intensity. Importantly, we extend the discussion, with three important observations. First, a linear model is insufficient for modeling these complex associations with outcomes. Second, there is a threshold at which too much participation has a negative impact in these outcomes. Third, variations in activities, time windows and indices have small or no influence in the association with outcomes.

According to several studies, the three levels of representation in chemistry are the fundamental aspects of effective learning and understanding of chemistry. In this study, we aim to illustrate how students identify changes in the matter using eye-tracking and verbalizations. Five students observed chemical and physical phenomena depicted by using the three representational levels under eye-tracking monitoring. This allows making inferences about which representation received students' attention for the longest time. In order to enrich this illustrative experiment, data were triangulated with think-aloud techniques and researchers' observations during the procedure. Our results suggest that eye-tracking experiments may provide some relevant insights into students' cognition regarding representational levels. The multiple case study presented hereby pointed out that the levels observed for the longest time were the macro and the submicro levels, although only the macro level was relevant to the student's answers, according to their verbalizations. Finally, qualitative analyses of these illustrations are also presented and discussed.

Background: Computerised adaptive tests (CATs) are tests that provide personalised, efficient and accurate measurement while reducing testing time, depending on the desired level of precision. Schools have different types of assessments that can benefit from a significant reduction in testing time to varying degrees, depending on the area of application, but for which the loss of measurement accuracy has a different impact. The implementation of CAT can take several approaches, each of which can potentially affect the resulting test length and accuracy. Objectives: We compare the methods of estimation-based CAT and binary-search-based CAT to determine the extent to which they are suitable for school assessment in terms of their length and accuracy. Methods: This study uses simulations based on empirical data from a cohort of pupils with and without special needs (n = 400) to examine the effects of probabilistic estimation-based CAT and deterministic binary-search-based CAT on the length and accuracy of an adaptive reading test for pupils with different ability levels. Results and Conclusions: Estimation-based CAT leads to a 40% test reduction with an average accuracy of r = 0.96, while binary-search-based CAT leads to a test reduction of up to 88% with an average accuracy of r = 0.83. Both methods demonstrate the applicability of CAT in educational environments. Practical advantages and disadvantages of both methods for learning environments are discussed, as well as which method is best suited for specific assessment needs.

Background: The integration of Text-to-Speech (TTS) and virtual reality (VR) technologies in K-12 education is an emerging trend. However, little is known about how students perceive these technologies and whether these technologies effectively facilitate learning. Objectives: This study aims to investigate the perception and effectiveness of TTS voices and VR agents in a K-12 classroom setting, with a focus on information recall. Methods: Using a recent TTS architecture, we developed four different synthetic voices based on 5, 10, 15 and 20 h of training materials. Two experiments were conducted involving students in a K-12 setting. The first experiment examined students' evaluations of TTS voices with varying hours of training material and the impact on information recall. The second experiment assessed the effect of pairing TTS voices with a VR agent on students' perception and recall performance. Results and Conclusions: Human voices received superior quality ratings over TTS voices within the classroom context. The integration of a VR agent was found to enhance the perception of TTS voices, aligning with existing literature on the positive impact of virtual agents on speech synthesis. However, this incorporation did not translate to improved recall, suggesting that the student focus may have been compromised by the VR agent's novelty and its design limitations.

Background: Previous reviews did not include sources that were published in the last 14 years, indicating a need for an updated synthesis on the time delay literature. Objectives: This review was designed to synthesize outcomes for studies assessing time delay prompting procedures for teaching young children. Data sources: PsycINFO and ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. Eligibility criteria: To meet inclusion criteria, studies had to be written in English, include a single case design with the primary intervention being time delay. Methods: We coded descriptive characteristics and evaluated rigor using the Single-Case Analysis and Review Framework. Results: A total of 33 published and unpublished sources were included. Results were mixed but suggest that time delay is effective for teaching young children with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Limitations: We did not calculate effect sizes or conduct a meta-analysis due to the inappropriateness of most effect size metrics for acquisition data. Conclusions: Additional research is needed to (a) determine in which contexts time delay can and will be used by endogenous implementers; (b) assess outcomes for children who are non-imitative; and (c) evaluate child preferences for learning variations.

Extended time is frequently recommended for students with disabilities (SWD) with an intent to remove barriers to accurate measurement of their underlying knowledge and skills. However, empirical findings have varied in terms of whether extended time conditions are an appropriate method for doing so, raising questions of whether frequent recommendation is warranted. Existing score comparability studies have not carefully attended to whether students for whom the extended time accommodation has been recommended truly need, use, and benefit from extended time. In the current study, math test process data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress were used to explore and compare score comparability, as determined via analysis of differential item functioning, for SWD specifically deemed by school teams to need extended time. Score comparability was evident regardless of whether or not the students actually used extended time, begging the question of whether, for many SWD, extended time is truly necessary for score comparability to be achieved. Implications for practice, including methods for more specifically identifying who indeed needs extended time, as well as options for alternative accommodations and interventions that may better target the needs of students who don't truly need and/or use it are offered.

This research presents the findings of an 8-month ethnographic case study of one infant/toddler classroom in the southeastern United States. Participants included the classroom's two (white, female) teachers and a racially diverse group of 12 children between one to 2 years of age. Grounded within an ethics of care theoretical framework, this research was guided by the following research questions: (1) What are teachers' lived experiences of care in this early childhood classroom community? and (2) How do those teachers understand their lived experiences of care? During data revisiting with teachers (Tobin and Hsueh, 2014), the concept of time--and particularly, slowness--emerged as a central connecting theme. The emergence of this central theme led to an overarching theoretically guided analysis of the data, implementing a feminist interpretation of Clark's (2022) articulation of Slow Pedagogy in ECE to understand how slowness--a feminized quality antithetical to the furious pace of neoliberal education--is central to care in this context. In addition, a thematic analysis (Saldaña, 2021) of ethnographic data, including field notes, video, and photos gathered during participant observations, and four semi-structured teacher interviews, produced two foundational themes in teachers' understandings and practices of care: Care as Emotional Presence, and Care as Acknowledgment. Findings introduce the concept of Slow Care, a noveltheorizing of care practices that emphasizes the importance of slow, relationally-guided temporalities, serving to contest and counter the growing neoliberal pressures of efficiency and productivity in early childhood policy and practice.

Receiving appropriate, unbiased advice from their teachers is important for students' smaller- and larger-scale educational decisions. However, teachers' concerns about being or appearing to be prejudiced may interfere and lead them to provide encouraging advice to students belonging to negatively stereotyped groups even when it is not warranted (failure-to-warn phenomenon). In this experimental study, we aimed to replicate findings from the US and tested whether teacher students in Germany provided overly encouraging advice regarding the academic plans of a student with a Turkish (vs. German) name. Teacher students (n = 174) saw the overly ambitious timetable of a (supposed) student with a Turkish or German name and gave advice online on rating scales and in an open-response format. In their advice, they indicated, among others, the perceived demands of the timetable, possible affective and social consequences for the student, and the need to reconsider the timetable. Contrary to expectations and findings from the US, our analyses did not indicate differences in the advice that students with Turkish vs. German names received. Instead, teacher students warned students with a Turkish and German name equally of the difficulties associated with their potential timetable. We discuss both methodology- and theory-related potential explanations for these unexpected findings.

The inconsistent findings about learning outcomes in VR (virtual reality) learning necessitate further robustness of empirical data. This article addressed this gap by comparing the learning outcomes across VR, phone, and mobile learning on two dimensions: recall accuracy and recall speed, as well as learners' attitudes. Additionally, this paper attempted to investigate the differences between 5 and 10 min time duration. By inviting a total of 28 participants to the lab experiments on English vocabulary acquisition, this study yielded no statistically significant difference in vocabulary recall accuracy between VR, computer, and mobile learning. Nonetheless, the significant difference in vocabulary recall speed was generated. Besides, the time spent on vocabulary acquisition was significantly shorter in VR than in computer and mobile learning. Additionally, pairwise comparisons revealed that learners' perceptions and attitudes toward SUS resulted in significantly lower scores in VR than in computer- and mobile-based learning. Further, merely two of the nine items on the VR sickness scale demonstrated a significant raise in visual fatigue as well as significant decline in headache between 5 and 10 min learning duration. Future research should anticipate a larger sample size to ensure the validity of research findings and further construct a 3D modeling for the same language learning settings for non-college, primary, as well as secondary school students.

Research on improving engineering skills in students advocates for high-quality teaching practices as well as the implementation of digitally enhanced management systems, such as e-Learning. Furthermore, COVID-19 led to several changes in education, such as switching drastically from face to face to emergency remote and later hybrid teaching. This study has focused on the proposal, the application and the evaluation of a new e-Learning teaching method. "FastTest PlugIn" has been used for the creation of large sets of questions, to develop parameterised and individualised exercises in Moodle. The method has been applied since COVID-19, considering different types of teaching: completely remote, hybrid and face to face. It has been implemented in some courses of the bachelor's and master's degree in engineering at the University of Cadiz (Spain). The academic performance and students' feedback on the method have been obtained. During remote teaching, students presented lower scores than before the pandemic. However, as students became familiar with the method and at least face-to-face exams were carried out, the scores and students' perception of the difficulty of the courses improved. The main novelty of this method is the reliability of creating different exercises for a consistent level of difficulty; the ability to avoid dishonest actions of students; and the time saved by instructors, as exercises are automatically corrected. This study provides the advantages and benefits of digitally enhancing university teaching. Furthermore, it is the first to investigate the integration of "FastTest PlugIn" to enhance teaching quality and engineering skills.

Reduced hours of instruction are reported within the gross anatomy education literature. Anatomy instruction continues to be challenged with motivating and inspiring learners to value the contribution of gross anatomy knowledge to their career development alongside increased organizational demands for efficiency and effectiveness. To address these demands, this retrospective study sought to understand how the relative timing and amount of gross anatomy instruction were related to examination performance. Undergraduate and graduate students between 2018 and 2022 were assigned to three cohorts determined by enrollment in prosection-based anatomy only (n = 334), concurrent enrollment in prosection- and dissection-based anatomy in the same semester (n = 67), or consecutive enrollment in the courses one year apart (n = 43). Concurrent students had higher prosection-based anatomy examination scores than prosection-only and consecutive students. Consecutively, enrolled students outperformed concurrently enrolled students on the first two dissection examinations but showed no performance differences on the third and fourth dissection examinations. While the results on the timing and presentation of anatomical instruction were inconclusive, the results do support increased instructional time using both prosection and dissection modalities concurrently to improve performance on identification-based gross anatomy examinations.

This study had two objectives. One objective was to assess the psychometric properties of a survey instrument measuring a new latent variable, Academic Culture (AC), combining three observed variables academic press, disciplinary climate and teachers' uses of instructional time. The second objective was to replicate the results of an earlier study identifying AC as a significant mediator of school leadership's influence on student learning. Data for the study were provided from 2068 teachers located in 49 schools in 14 Texas school districts, as well as student achievement data from the State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness (STAAR) and student socioeconomic (SES) data available from school websites. Second order Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Many-Facet Rasch (MFR) models were used to examine the survey instrument's construct validity and its measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling was used to identify the extent to which AC mediated the effects of school leadership on student achievement controlling for student SES. Rasch analysis and CFA confirmed the measurement invariance and several forms of validity of the survey instrument. Replicating the results of an earlier study, results of structural equation modeling demonstrated significant effects of AC on student achievement and identified AC as a significant mediator of school leadership effects on student achievement. The study contributes to the quality of instruments available to school leaders for their school improvement work and to researchers inquiring about the most promising variables mediating the indirect effects of school leadership on student success.

Course-based undergraduate research experiences (CUREs) are an effective method of engaging large numbers of students in authentic research but are associated with barriers to adoption. Short CURE modules may serve as a low-barrier entryway, but their effectiveness in promoting expansion has not been studied. The Prevalence of Antibiotic Resistance in the Environment (PARE) project is a modular CURE designed to be a low-barrier gateway into CURE use. In a series of interviews, we track and characterize use of PARE in 19 PARE-interested instructors throughout the Innovation-Decision Process described by Rogers' Diffusion of Innovations theory. The majority (16/19) implement PARE at least once, and a majority of these implementers (11/16) expanded use by the final interview. Three of four cases of discontinuance were due to a disruption such as moving institutions or a change in course assignment and occurred for community college faculty. Expanders expressed fewer personal challenges than nonexpanders. Overall analysis shows that perception of barriers is nuanced and impacted by the innovation itself, the institutional context, and one's own experiences. These results suggest that a short duration, low barrier CURE can serve as a catalyst for implementation of a longer duration CURE.

This article reports on a systematic review of the evidence concerning the impact of citizenship education, specifically focusing on the effect of different teaching activities on a range of active citizenship outcomes. It provides a narrative synthesis of 109 articles in peer reviewed journals, representing a wide range of methodological approaches. The review was undertaken for a teacher audience and the research team identified four themes with practical implications. First, we discuss the significance of school ethos and distinguish between distinctive aspects of ethos in the literature including relationships between students and teachers, values and behaviours. Second, we explore some of the characteristics of successful projects, including detailed consideration of the type of projects selected for action by young people, the role of teachers, and the duration of projects. This discussion suggests that, whilst full project cycles (involving students identifying and researching areas for action and devising, implementing and reviewing action plans) are valuable, there is also evidence to suggest that short, partial projects may be easier to implement and still secure comparable benefits. Third, we consider the evidence about whether and how citizenship education can have some compensatory effect, closing the civic gap between different groups of young people. In the fourth theme we consider the wide range of teaching strategies which have been demonstrated to have some success in practice.

We examine the fundamental and complex role that time plays in the learning process. We begin by developing a conceptual framework to elucidate the multiple obstacles schools face in converting total time in school into active learning time. We then synthesize the causal research and document a clear positive effect of additional time on student achievement typically of small to medium magnitude depending on dosage, use, and context. Further descriptive analyses reveal how large differences in the length of the school day and year across public schools are an underappreciated dimension of educational inequality in the United States. Finally, our case study of time loss in one urban district demonstrates the potential to substantially increase instructional time within existing constraints.

Based on 1,364 children across Grades 1, 3, and 5, the present study explored the mutualism of (externalizing and internalizing) behavioral problems and language, and whether social skills explained such mutualism. The random intercept cross-lagged panel models were conducted to control for between-person level variance and to explore mutualism of variables on the within-person level. Results indicated the mutualistic coupling of language and externalizing behavioral problems from Grades 3 to 5. When including social skills in the model, only social skills and externalizing behavioral problems formed the mutualism from Grades 3 to 5; language only predicted behavioral problems and social skills in the early elementary stage (Grades 1-3). These results suggest that language and behavioral management early on are important investing skills for the development of language, behavior skills, and social skills. With development, social skills may become more important than general language skills to manage problem behaviors. These findings indicated that interventions targeting behavioral problems may need to adapt their focus as children develop: fostering general language abilities early on but shifting to building social skills in later grades.

Objective: This study investigated active recess as an innovative approach to improving physical activity levels in European primary schools, addressing the need to counteract sedentary behaviour and enhance health in students. Method and Design: Using rapid reviewing, the article summarises empirical evidence from a variety of sources, including cross-sectional and intervention studies. Different approaches are investigated to determine their impact on physical activity during recess. Results: Different playground settings have distinct effects on physical activity, with grassland and designated zones in particular promoting moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Gender inequalities in physical activity patterns suggest the need for gender-sensitive interventions. Playground marking and scheduled activities temporarily increase physical activity, whereas recess of more than 60 minutes dramatically enhances physically active participation. Conclusions: This study demonstrates the impact of active recess in facilitating children to engage in higher levels of physical activity. The findings have implications for school health policy decisions.

Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) has received increasing attention for its role in promoting learners' cognitive and social development in STEM education. However, little is known about how learners interact dynamically within a group at different time granularities. This gap mainly resulted from overlooking the time dimension of interactions, leading to a lack of nuanced understanding of moment-to-moment interaction in CPS. In this study, we demonstrated the potential of "temporal group interaction density" in modeling online CPS interactions and investigated the impact of temporal interaction density on CPS processes and outcomes. Specifically, we proposed using cumulative weighted density to measure the holistic state of group interactions and explained the differences in group interactions with different collaborative performance and interaction densities by modeling the transition and evolution of interaction sequences through Apriori and cumulative relative centrality. Results indicated that group interaction density cannot directly predict their collaborative performance, but notable differences in interaction patterns existed in the high-performance groups with different interaction densities, while low-performance groups showed interactive commonalities towards the completion of CPS. The findings of this study guided the design of CPS interventions and supported the process mining of CPS interactions, with vital practical implications for CPS assessment and skills development.

Since Brown and Kulik (1977) coined the term 'Flashbulb memories' (FBMs), there are still heated debates about their nature. We thus considered it useful to take stock of almost 50 years of research by reviewing 57 test-retest studies on FBMs for public events. The review aimed to answer six research questions by examining the target events and populations investigated (RQ1); the methods used to assess differences among groups and the effect of time on memory (RQ2); the assessment of FBMs' contents (RQ3), consistency (RQ4), vividness and confidence (RQ5); the criteria used to draw studies' conclusions (RQ6). Results show a huge methodological heterogeneity which may have contributed to the different conclusions about the special status of FBMs. The in-depth comparison of 9/11 studies suggests that results may differ depending on the methods used. Finally, the paper provides methodological suggestions for future FBMs studies and seeks to stimulate critical theoretical reflections.

Abacus-based mental calculation (AMC) is a widely used educational tool for enhancing math learning, offering an accessible and cost-effective method for classroom implementation. Despite its universal appeal, the neurocognitive mechanisms that drive the efficacy of AMC training remain poorly understood. Notably, although abacus training relies heavily on the rapid recall of number positions and sequences, the role of memory systems in driving long-term AMC learning remains unknown. Here, we sought to address this gap by investigating the role of the medial temporal lobe (MTL) memory system in predicting long-term AMC training gains in second-grade children, who were longitudinally assessed up to fifth grade. Leveraging multimodal neuroimaging data, we tested the hypothesis that MTL systems, known for their involvement in associative memory, are instrumental in facilitating AMC-induced improvements in math skills. We found that gray matter volume in bilateral MTL, along with functional connectivity between the MTL and frontal and ventral temporal-occipital cortices, significantly predicted learning gains. Intriguingly, greater gray matter volume but weaker connectivity of the posterior parietal cortex predicted better learning outcomes, offering a more nuanced view of brain systems at play in AMC training. Our findings not only underscore the critical role of the MTL memory system in AMC training but also illuminate the neurobiological factors contributing to individual differences in cognitive skill acquisition.

Earning industry certifications helps people prepare for jobs in a range of careers. Doing so in high school may help students prepare for college as well. Using administrative data on two cohorts of first-time 9th graders in Florida, we examined whether earning a certification was associated with postsecondary enrollment and degree attainment and whether the timing of the certification influenced that relationship. Earning a certification in high school prepared students for success in both 2-year and 4-year colleges. However, the patterns of certifications and college enrollment and degree attainment differed based on when students earned the certification. For early earners the certification was more closely associated with enrollment and attainment at 4-year colleges; for later earners, the certification was closely associated with enrollment and attainment in 2-year colleges.

Temporal seeing is a mode of visual perception that interrupts the spatial bias we bring to visual literacy practices. Although an image only captures one moment in time, there are multiple spatioanalytical tools we can use to consider any image. Spatial literacy, which is the practice of analyzing objects through their properties in space, tends to be the default analytical mode for making sense of imagery. For people to bring a commensurate temporal richness to their articulated visual readings, we first highlight the perspectival richness of time and temporality. We next present five precepts that can guide enriched temporal seeing: contextual histories; relational chronologies; internal rhymicity; desequenced and resequenced narrative; and critique and meaning-making. Finally, we suggest that temporal seeing holds a series of educative possibilities for expanding the interpretive frames and perceptual apparatuses of literacy researchers and practitioners.

The assumption that honors programs are more academically challenging is rarely interrogated. Using multi-institutional, longitudinal quantitative data from a larger study, we use quasi-experimental methods to examine students' experiences of course rigor, including workload and cognitive challenge, for honors participants compared to non-participants. Honors students perceive greater workload but not cognitive challenge in their first year, especially in terms of the amount of reading and writing they are asked to do. In their fourth year, honors participants experience less cognitive challenge than non-participants. Results of subgroup analyses suggest that these differences are likely driven by students who participate in centralized honors programs rather than departmental honors as well as those attending more selective institutions, with implications for honors program instructors and administrators.

Although user-generated microgames, defined as very simple games made by non-professionals on open platforms, are popular and appear to have considerable advantages in facilitating learning, further exploration is needed to establish their potential in instructional practices. The present study investigates the design, participation and experience of teaching and learning facilitated by user-generated microgames on an open educational platform. Through an exploratory experiment research method, four elementary school teachers designed and implemented microgame-based learning utilising these very small games on GeoGebra Classroom attended by 129 students. Data were gathered from lesson plans, classroom activity records and self-reflection questionnaires. This study revealed that teachers designed learning with various user-generated microgames and debriefing methods respecting learning content, but they shared comparatively similar scenarios by inserting microgame-based learning into the middle of the main session. The completion rate for the debriefing activity is minimum although the total joining times overshoot the number of students. Teachers found that user-generated microgames are acceptable to orchestrate short serious gaming sessions even though they are limited to one player with basic interfaces. Notwithstanding several disadvantages of these microgames recognised by students, such as missing learning instructions and inadequate interfaces, they so far enjoy learning by playing the games. The most critical implication of this study is to provide sufficient instructions and additional time for microgaming sessions in elementary schools to ensure sustainable completion of the briefing, playing and debriefing activities.

In university mathematics education, students do not simply learn mathematics but are shaped and shape themselves into someone new - mathematicians. In this study, we focus on the becoming of "dis"abled mathematical subjects. We explore the importance of abilities in the processes of being and becoming in university mathematics. Our interest lies in how teaching and assessment practices provide students with ways to understand themselves as both able and "dis"abled, as "dis"abilities are only understood with respect to the norm. We analyse narratives of nine university students diagnosed with learning disabilities or mental health issues to investigate how their subjectivity is constituted in discourse. Our analysis shows how the students are shaped and shape themselves as "dis"abled mathematicians in relation to "speed" in mathematical activities, "disaffection" in mathematics, "individualism" in performing mathematics, and "measurability" of performance. These findings cast light on the ableist underpinnings of the teaching and assessment practices in university mathematics education. We contend that mathematical ableism forms a watershed for belonging in mathematics learning practices, constituting rather narrow, "normal" ways of being "mathematically able". We also discuss how our participants challenge and widen the idea of an "able" mathematics student. We pave the way for more inclusive futures of mathematics education by suggesting that rather than understanding the "dis" in disability negatively, the university mathematics education communities may use dis by disrupting order. Perhaps, we ask, if university mathematics fails to enable accessible learning experiences for students who care about mathematics, these practices should indeed be disrupted.

Although digital game-based vocabulary learning (DGBVL) has received increasing attention in the past two decades, the impacts of DGBVL on the depth of word knowledge are still not well understood, especially in regard to productive vocabulary learning and DGBVL's long-term efficacy. This study leverages a quasiexperimental research design to investigate DGBVL's long-term effects on receptive vocabulary (RV) and productive vocabulary (PV). Forty-eight Chinese English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) university students, assigned to the experimental and control groups, were instructed by a DGBVL approach and PowerPoint (PPT) lecturing, respectively, over the course of 18 weeks. Specifically, a mixed 2×2 repeated measures experimental design was conducted by adopting instruction type (DGBVL and PPT lecturing) and testing time (pretest and posttest) as the independent variables, with RV and PV proficiency as the respective dependent variables. The results suggest that instruction type and teaching time have significant effects on participants' RV and PV learning achievements. However, teaching time's effect size outweighs instruction type. The findings are highly encouraging for the use of DGBVL in the EFL classroom, as it may serve as an effective and long-lasting pedagogical tool within this context.

Studyholism (SH) is a new potential clinical condition introduced in 2017 by Loscalzo and Giannini to refer to problematic overstudying, specifying that it might be associated with either high or low Study Engagement (SE). We aimed to analyze SH and SE's predictive role on academic resilience. We gathered 609 Indonesian youths, and we performed a path analysis model. Among the main findings, SH predicts a lack of academic resilience, while SE predicts higher academic resilience. However, SH and SE do not predict time spent studying, and GPA is negatively (although weakly) predicted by SH only. Hence, we provided support for the critical role of SH and SE in predicting students' academic success and for implementing preventive and clinical interventions to reduce SH and foster SE, given their impact on academic resilience, which, in turn, influences students' well-being and academic success. Finally, we recommend future research on Studyholism in non-Western countries.

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused many changes in all areas, including education. In this paper, we discuss the changes in the studying habits of higher education students brought about by the new modes of education. The research was conducted in Slovenia at the University of Maribor on a sample of 272 students. We investigated whether there had been changes in studying time, studying space, mode of studying and learning during lectures, social elements, and the advantages and barriers of distance learning. We found differences in certain studying habits related to the time and space of studying which are mainly associated with the prohibition of movement and socializing outside the household. We noticed a decline in motivation and its connection with lowering learning goals and students finding it harder to focus on learning. However, we also found that the new mode of studying brings greater flexibility for students, so some want to continue to study in this way. [Note: The page range (67-84) shown on the PDF is incorrect. The correct page range is 67-83.]

The early detection of students' academic performance or final grades helps instructors prepare their online courses. In the Open University Learning Analytics Dataset, I found many online students clicked the course materials before the first day of class. This study aims to investigate how data mining models can use this student interaction data to predict their academic performance. In this study, this interaction information is called "week 0" data. The results suggest that "week 0" interaction data can be used to identify the academic success of online students and predict first assignment performance.

University students are often depicted as carefree young adults; however, many students struggle to manage the "normal" stresses of university life and may experience high rates of psychological distress. This study compared a traditional delivery model to a shorter delivery model (i.e., the Southern Cross Model) in terms of students' psychological distress, their perceived time pressure, and academic performance. The results indicated a significant difference in academic performance and psychological distress between the shorter delivery model and the traditional delivery model, with students in this shorter delivery model experiencing lower levels of psychological distress and enhanced academic performance. No significant difference in time pressure was found between the delivery models. This study indicates that the Southern Cross Model may enhance students' academic performance and help them to better manage the normal stresses of university life.

In 2019, I refreshed a tertiary writing unit in which, across two assignments, students planned and then produced their own creative non-fiction work. Peer workshopping was an important pedagogical tool to help students bridge the gap between their creative non-fiction plan and their final submission. In the discipline of Writing, peer workshopping is central to students' degrees, allowing them to develop a collective wisdom that is difficult to replicate in digital learning environments. My regional institution offers "digital first" degrees, and around 90% of my students learn online. Therefore, I created workshops online in asynchronous, written form, to suit our cohort of mostly mature age students with many commitments alongside study. During the unit, many students expressed troubles in using online programs such as Google Docs, prompting me to reflect on how to best meet their learning needs. Students took part in focus groups, which formed the basis of my subsequent revision of the digital workshops in the unit's 2021 iteration. The need for digital adaptations of disciplinary pedagogies became even more broadly relevant by 2021, as more universities moved online during the pandemic in an Emergency Remote Learning response, and many remain online post-pandemic. Reflecting on my improved 2021 workshops, I ask, how can the writing workshop be successfully replicated in an asynchronous digital space? My response will reflect on 2021 survey feedback on the outcomes of my revisions in digital skills instruction and managing students' time investment.

The motivational beliefs of students, who were mainly bioscience majors interested in careers in health professions, in mandatory large introductory level algebra-based physics courses were surveyed. Although female students outnumbered male students in these courses, they had lower physics motivational beliefs including self-efficacy and identity at the beginning of the physics course, and this gender gap increased by the end of the course. Moreover, the present study used a slightly modified version of the physics identity framework by Hazari et al. (2010) to investigate whether the relation between gender and physics identity was mediated by other motivational beliefs, including perceived recognition by others, self-efficacy, and interest. The model shows that perceived recognition by others, self-efficacy, and interest mediated students' physics identity and there was no direct path from gender to identity. The increased gender gap in these beliefs measured at the end of the physics courses may signify inequity and the non-inclusive nature of the physics learning environment. These findings related to the gender gap in physics motivational beliefs are valuable because they may signify that classroom representation alone will not change the pernicious effects of systemic gender inequities in physics perpetuated by society and bolstered further by the physics learning environments.

The study reported in this paper was conducted to examine four South African grades 7 teachers' understanding of the importance of instructional time as a teaching resource to develop learners' relational understanding in mathematics. A constructivist philosophical approach, document analysis, lesson observations and interviews were used to collect data. The findings indicate that the four teachers faced, to varying degrees, challenges in using instructional time as expected. Two did not help learners understand the relationship between the concepts taught and the examples selected to scaffold learning. They prioritised drawing learners' attention to correct responses to questions posed. Only two teachers used strategies that encouraged the learners to share experience, collectively reflect on individual taken-for granted conceptions, probe and identify how they could be used to explain mathematical concepts. The conclusion is that the teachers' lack of understanding the pedagogical significance of instructional time as social time highlighted inadequate curriculum and subject content expertise and supported the general concern about the quality of mathematics teaching within the country.

This paper will contribute to our understanding of the Block, its pedagogical rationale and value, and explain why, apart from pandemic conditions, these might constitute a compelling alternative to traditional academic calendars. Current research highlights the need for further research on the nature of the Block, driven by an increased global focus on student outcomes and retention in Higher Education. This paper offers five case studies from institutions that have adopted a version of the Block at some time over the last 50 years. The authors seek to define the features that comprise block courses whereas the nature and functionality distinguish blocks from other intensive formats. A survey of the limited literature on this topic was based on theoretical underpinnings offered by one-course-at-a-time delivery, scholarship of teaching and learning on compressed education, and experiential learning. Using the research question, "Other than scheduling alternatives, what does the block offer HE institutions?", this project uses research that is qualitative in nature drawing on a controlled comparison of case studies which enables a cross-institutional evaluation. The case studies explain why each institution adopted the Block, how these schedules work, and discusses the challenges and affordances of teaching in this intensive format. First findings of this cross-institutional exploration suggest that blocks are unique in their delivery, often experiential in nature, and effective in their outcomes. The various versions of the Block described within, provide ongoing transformative models of teaching philosophy, curriculum, student success, and more.

Slow reading has long been viewed as a teaching technique that engages students more deeply with course readings. Little systematic research, however, has been done to understand how this pedagogical strategy works in college classrooms. This study investigated how slow reading techniques promoted deep learning among undergraduate college students across two disciplines. Utilizing two food essays as the basis for a reading assignment, students in two courses participated in an intentionally scaffolded and paced slow reading exercise designed to encourage deeper personal engagement with course concepts. Theoretical implications from the research demonstrate connections between slow reading techniques and the existing literature on both significant and deep learning. More practically, this study found that slow reading techniques fostered personal storytelling as a means of developing deeper connections to assigned texts, presenting an opportunity for instructors hoping to facilitate the meaningful integration of course concepts into students' lives.

The after-school program is a crucial initiative for implementing the Double Reduction policy; however, prior research has not provided conclusive evidence on whether extended school hours contribute to students' cognitive and non-cognitive development or on which types of after-school services are more beneficial for student development. This study analyzed 37 after-school programs from 18 publications using meta-analytic techniques, and the results indicated that participation in after-school programs had positive effects on student cognitive and non-cognitive development despite the small effect size (d = 0.327, p = 0.000). The decomposition of the effects of after-school programs revealed that they had modestly positive effects on academic achievement (d = 0.369) and social-emotional competence (d = 0.220). In addition, the analysis of moderating variables revealed that socioeconomic status, educational phase, number of after-school service days per week, sample size, and testing instrument all influenced the after-school program effects. This study concludes, based on the results of the meta-analysis, that there should be a balanced consideration of the development of student cognitive and non-cognitive abilities in planning after-school service, a substantial variety of activities in afterschool programs, a flexible adoption of diverse after-school programs, and a reasonable participation frequency in after-school service.