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We revisit the predictive ability of dividend changes for firms' future earnings and extend the literature by examining the effect of management forecasting ability. Although prior studies have examined the relationship between dividend changes and future earnings, the empirical evidence is mixed. The belief that dividend changes have implications for future earnings depends on the assumption that managers can accurately assess future earnings prospects. In this regard, we posit that the predictive ability of dividends can vary with managers' forecasting ability. Analyzing a large sample of Japanese dividend-paying firms, we find that dividend changes, particularly dividend increases, are positively associated with increases in future earnings. Consistent with our hypothesis, this positive association is more pronounced for firms with high-forecasting ability managers. Our findings support the signaling theory of dividend changes and indicate that management forecasting ability has a moderating effect on the linkage between firms' dividend changes and future earnings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theory of change has become a common tool in project design because it helps teams agree on hypothesized causal pathways to a desired goal and examine their underlying assumptions. Yet, a consensus has not emerged on the specific steps and components of a theory of change. What constitutes a theory of change? Using 22 theory of change publications, we did a structured analysis of the components of a theory of change. Where there was substantial agreement among the publications on a specific component of a theory of change, we included it in the first iteration of our approach. We then ordered the components in a logical sequence, developed guidance for each component, tested them with project teams, and revised them in an iterative process. We tested and refined our guidance over 3 years with 73 teams from 18 countries. Here, we share our learning and recommendations for those interested in developing a robust theory of change for a conservation project. The authors conducted a structured analysis of 22 publications on theory of change, identifying common components to form the basis of their approach. Over 3 years, they tested and refined this approach with 73 project teams from 18 countries, offering guidance and recommendations for creating effective theories of change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy transition in the electricity sector is central to limiting global warming to 1.5 °C. Countries around the world rely on official planning documents, such as strategies, special programs, and action plans, to guide these efforts. However, there are few systematic approaches and tools that can help policy makers determine comprehensiveness, coherence, consistency, and coordination when designing these planning documents. This represents a risk to meet energy transition and climate change goals if the relationships of policies and actions included in these documents are not addressed properly. To this end, this paper proposes an approach to model hierarchical relationships using the theory of change, while causal relationships are allocated using policy makers' experience (yet can also be exogenously allocated using other models). As a case study, this work investigates Mexico's energy transition policy of the electricity sector over the 2013–2018 period. The results show that Mexico's official planning documents lack a good design since most policies and actions are not articulated in the right sequence and privilege clean centralized and distributed generation and energy efficiency, while others related to the modernization of electrical grids and climate and environmental policies are barely included. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Athletes display a high prevalence of undesired sleep characteristics that may affect both performance and wellbeing. Objectives: This scoping review aimed to identify and map the existing evidence of behavioral sleep interventions and their effects on sleep outcomes in athletes, and retrospectively code the behavior change techniques (BCTs) implemented using the Behavior Change Technique Taxonomy (BCTTv1). Methods: Conducted following the JBI methodology for scoping reviews, four online databases were used to identify prospective interventions with at least one behavioral component in competitive athletes, and reporting a sleep outcome pre- and post-intervention. Results: Thirty-three studies met the inclusion criteria, encompassing 892 participants with a median age of 23. Five intervention categories were identified (education, mind-body practices, direct, multi-component, and other), with each demonstrating mixed efficacy but the potential to improve sleep outcomes. The BCTs varied in type and frequency between each category, with only 18 unique BCTs identified across all studies. Conclusions: The varied efficacy of previous studies at improving sleep outcomes may be attributed to the lack of behavior change theory applied during intervention development. Designing interventions following a targeted specification of the behavioral problem, and the integration of corresponding BCTs should be considered in future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Though qualitative evidence of social impact exists for disability-inclusive social enterprise, there is a dearth of quantitative economic impact on their social impact. This study aims to address this gap and investigate the appropriateness and usefulness of social return on investment (SROI) methodology in this context. Design/methodology/approach: Primary data was collected from people with disabilities, their families, staff at the parent company (an Australian Disability Enterprise [ADE]), social investors and other key stakeholders (n = 17). The study was also informed by the literature and a steering group to provide expert opinion when no other data existed to inform estimates. Sensitivity analysis was performed to check the robustness of the analysis. Findings: Social return was estimated at $1.47–$2.65 for every $1 invested (over 3 years) and $8.48–$12.63 (20 years). Some forecast assumptions significantly impacted upon final ratios and need to be tested. How SROI ratios are received by social investors, the ADE sector and government remains untested. However, the political climate suggests ADEs adopting social enterprise models will be well received if they can deliver, and demonstrate through robust measurement, sustainable open employment opportunities. Originality/value: Few studies exist that estimate the social impact of social enterprises supporting open employment of people with disabilities. At a time when ADEs (sheltered workshops) have been heavily criticised for providing repetitive, menial work for top up wages on welfare payments, the outputs from this research may provide valuable data to an ADE sector in transition as well as social investors and policy makers who increasingly require robust measurement of impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this article is to establish a conceptual connection between social innovation (SI) and utopia. Both refer to change in the future, imply an intent to bring about or envision a better state of affairs and therefore offer some critique of the present. Current concepts of SI lack focus on thecritiques, hopes and imaginaries that underlie SI initiatives. The paper turns towards the concept of utopia to fully understand SI as a tool for social change and engages with how utopia can become part of a social theory of change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AimsMethodsResultsConclusionTo investigate what it is about community-based perinatal mental health peer support from trained volunteers that works, for whom, in what circumstances, in what respects, and why; and build a change model that includes positive and negative mechanisms and outcomes.Realist evaluation methods based on semi-structured interviews were used to create a change model for a third sector programme in England.Mothers who received peer support (n = 20), peer support volunteers (n = 27), and programme staff (n = 9) were interviewed. Positive impact on mothers was primarily based on feeling understood and accepted, social comparison (including normalisation, hope, and gaining perspective) and sharing non-directive information from experiential knowledge. Negative impact on mothers was based on negative social comparison, or absence of key peer support mechanisms. Mothers were affected in different ways, depending on individual contexts: their backgrounds, personalities, social situations, resources, experiences, beliefs, and needs. Some different mechanisms were present in one-to-one and group situations. All participants considered the benefits of peer support to greatly outweigh the risks.Individual contextual factors affect the multiple mechanisms through which mental health peer support can improve mothers’ emotional wellbeing and social participation. Peer support has potential risks as well as benefits, which can be mitigated. Programmes could use this understanding of how contexts and mechanisms interact to produce peer support outcomes to improve training for peer support volunteers and to design future evaluations that take into account diversity of peer support experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article aims to present the basic tenets of contextual therapy and its treatment goals, methodology, and theory of change. It provides an orientation for readers who are new to the approach and should serve as an updated frame of reference for readers already familiar with it. An important contribution of this article is that it clarifies the place of contextual therapy in the vast field of family therapy and dispels some common misunderstandings about the path of its founder, Ivan Boszormenyi‐Nagy (1920–2007). Additionally, it demonstrates why contextual therapy should be counted among the postmodern, collaborative approaches to family therapy, which contradicts the usual view that it belongs to the earlier modern models of family therapy. Furthermore, it shows that contextual therapy is well‐equipped to incorporate the current and future contributions of human sciences and offers unique therapeutic resources to address the individual and relational consequences of injustices that should remain relevant for the foreseeable future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information disclosure policies influence nearly every consumer domain. Disclosure research across various sectors, particularly finance and nutrition, demonstrates how policymakers can enhance consumer decision-making and promote a fair marketplace. In particular, five key considerations make policies more effective: understanding existing consumer preferences, capturing and maintaining consumer attention, providing actionable knowledge, anticipating firm responses, and recognizing potential perverse effects of information provision. An overarching "theory of change" organizes these considerations and other steps to reveal how disclosure policy can promote consumer well-being. Implementing disclosure policies using these psychological and behavioral insights will maximize their effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Mental health in the workplace is a growing concern for enterprises and policy makers. MENTUPP is a multi-level mental health intervention implemented in small and medium size enterprises from three work sectors in nine countries. This pilot study aimed to evaluate the feasibility, delivery, and instruments for the MENTUPP intervention to inform the planning of a clustered randomized controlled trial. Methods: We administered items from the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire and the Danish Work Environment Cohort Study measuring psychosocial workplace factors. The questionnaire was answered by 382 participants at baseline, of which 98 participants also answered after six months at follow-up. We calculated mean scores of 19 psychosocial factors at baseline and conducted repeated measures ANOVAs to assess differences in eight psychosocial factors at follow-up. We also examined whether outcomes differed between work sectors and job positions at follow-up. Results: The construction sector and workers with no or a lower leadership role reported more negative working environment factors at baseline. We observed a statistically significant decline in social support from colleagues and social community at work, and a marginally significant decline in justice at work. For the rest of the constructs, we did not observe statistically significant changes. Conclusions: We found significant differences in psychosocial work environment factors among work sectors and job positions at baseline. Contrary to our hypotheses, three psychosocial work environment factors decreased at follow-up. Possible explanations are the utilization of specific psychosocial factors as resources to cope with psychosocial stressors, high participant expectations that were not met by the intervention, insufficient time for structural changes, or the intervention prompting critical evaluations of the work environment. These findings will inform the design and implementation of the forthcoming clustered randomized controlled trial, where they will also be further investigated to validate their significance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children's picturebooks have a unique potential to support young children with learning disabilities, to allow them to see themselves reflected in the stories, to educate others around them about their experiences and their needs, and to better represent the diversity of learners. Are today's picturebooks that portray characters with learning disabilities harnessing this potential by providing a diversity of multi-dimensional characters that readers can connect with? Through the lens of radical change theory, this study uses content analysis to examine the text and illustrations of 14 recent picturebooks that portray characters with learning disabilities to assess the trends, themes, and strengths of modern children's literature. Fourteen children's picturebooks for children ages 4 to 8 published between 2010 and March 2022 were selected, with a special effort to find books featuring characters with dysgraphia and dyscalculia, but also including characters with other learning disabilities. The books were closely read and the illustrations examined to find dominant themes and evidence of radical change—elements of changing forms and formats, changing perspective, and changing boundaries. Findings include an increase in the diversity of families portrayed, new perspectives of youth voices and youth authors, and more multi-dimensional, strength-based portrayals of characters. However, there is still a need for more diversity of ethnicities and ethno-centric storytelling and representation of learning disabilities other than dyslexia, including dyscalculia and dysgraphia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Organizations are full of contradictions and leadership dilemmas. Managers often face challenges such as selecting between two contradicting options such that which one is more important can hardly be judged. To manage contradicting dynamics, today's managers can adopt the paradoxical leadership approach. We build a theoretical model to investigate the influence of paradoxical leadership on multi-dimensional project agility (proactivity, adaptability, and resilience), and multi-dimensional project success (management, investment, and ownership success). Design/methodology/approach: Drawing on survey-based data from the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) megaproject (N = 209), we performed covariance-based structural equation modeling to test the conceptual model. Findings: The findings show that (1) paradoxical leadership has a significant positive impact on megaproject success, (2) paradoxical leadership has a significant positive influence on project agility, (3) project agility has a significant positive effect on megaproject success, and (4) project agility has a significant effect that mediates the link between paradoxical leadership and megaproject success. This research provides a theoretical and practical comprehension of paradoxical leadership with a new perspective on megaprojects. Originality/value: This study provides an extension of the existing studies on paradoxical leadership and identifies the role of contradicting dynamics and their impact on multiple facets of megaproject success. It not only clarifies the relationship between paradoxical leadership and megaproject success, but also identifies the mediating role of project agility that can play an effective role in mobilizing success in megaprojects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Strengthening management and leadership competencies among district and local health managers has emerged as a common approach for health systems strengthening and to achieve Universal Health Coverage (UHC). While the literature is rich with localized examples of initiatives that aim to strengthen the capacity of district or local health managers, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, considerably less attention is paid to the science of 'how' to scale-up these initiatives. The aim of this paper is thus to examine the 'process' of scaling-up a management strengthening intervention (MSI) and identify new knowledge and key lessons learned that can be used to inform the scale-up process of other complex health interventions, in support of UHC. Qualitative methods were used to identify lessons learned from scaling-up the MSI in Ghana, Malawi and Uganda. We conducted 14 interviews with district health management team (DHMT) members, three scale-up assessments with 20 scale-up stakeholders, and three reflection discussions with 11 research team members. We also kept records of activities throughout MSI and scale-up implementation. Data were recorded, transcribed and analysed against the Theory of Change to identify both scale-up outcomes and the factors affecting these outcomes. The MSI was ultimately scaled-up across 27 districts. Repeated MSI cycles over time were found to foster greater feelings of autonomy among DHMTs to address longstanding local problems, a more innovative use of existing resources without relying on additional funding and improved teamwork. The use of 'resource teams' and the emergence of MSI 'champions' were instrumental in supporting scale-up efforts. Challenges to the sustainability of the MSI include limited government buy-in and lack of sustained financial investment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Pacific region is experiencing accelerating global change with complex interactions amongst multiple drivers, yet the onus for urgent adaptation falls largely on communities. Proponents of adaptation must therefore ensure that communities are empowered and enabled to design and implement their own adaptation plans after project cycles have concluded, and that this capacity is scaled beyond the original focus. To address this challenge, we tested a new approach in the Solomon Islands for the iterative development, implementation and evaluation of community-led adaptation. Our theory of change was that by co-designing a decision-making process with a network of community facilitators, livelihood adaptation planning could be mainstreamed and scaled out across rural communities. We implemented a planning process based on systems thinking, social learning and co-production, which we assessed using a novel participatory monitoring, evaluation and learning framework. The process involved six steps: (1) identifying drivers of change; (2) developing shared visions for livelihoods; (3) scoping possible futures for livelihoods; (4) identifying existing community adaptive capacity; (5) determining priority 'no-regrets' strategies to achieve the community vision and (6) mapping adaptation pathways of implementation decisions. Community facilitators co-designed the process, and then ran it in their communities to develop place-based adaptation pathways suited to the local decision-making context, and scaling the process out to neighbouring villages through peer-to-peer learning. Results from a monitoring, evaluation and learning assessment showed the process had generated shifts in thinking among communities towards anticipatory adaptation and the development and implementation of livelihood adaptation pathways. The process had also empowered people to have ownership, responsibility and agency for their futures without major ongoing support from outside agencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavior change campaigns are crucial in combatting illegal wildlife trade (IWT) by reducing demand, but assessing their impact requires robust strategies. The Behavior‐Centered Theory of Change (BC‐ToC) integrates Theory of Change frameworks with decision‐making models to design and evaluate interventions using behavioral and progress indicators. We used BC‐ToC to design two behavioral change interventions aimed at reducing demand for two threatened Venezuelan bird species: the Yellow‐shouldered Amazon (YSA) and the Red Siskin (RS). We developed workshops to engage community organizations and conservationists to identify audience groups, evaluate alternative behaviors considering impact and benefits, and define behavior‐based indicators for monitoring change. For YSA, two audience groups with similar demand motivations emerged: "common folks" (women, 20–70 yo, low education) and "young professionals" (20–30 yo, educated). Enjoying parrots through outdoor activities emerged as an alternative. For RS, the main audience segments were the breeder groups "South American node" (Venezuelan and Brazilian) and "Iberian node" (Spaniels and Portuguese). Iberian with wider age range (30–60 yo) and greater education than South American. Adopting responsible sourcing practices surfaced as the alternative behavior. We described behavioral levers, intermediary outputs, and indicators reflecting changes in knowledge, attitudes, norms, and control. We discussed challenges for adoption, emphasizing systemic barriers and the role of regulations, and provided ground‐tailored strategies for effective behavioral interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fairtrade International and its member organizations have long been involved in producing research, so to better understand operating structures and environments, to identify the causal mechanisms in the Fairtrade Theory of Change results chain, and to assess Fairtrade's impact. Much of this research has been commissioned. However, Fairtrade increasingly also looks to collaborate with academic institutions in producing research so as to more effectively link to academic networks and areas of expertise. This article summarizes Fairtrade's academic collaboration model and elaborates on (i) what are the relevant research topics in which Fairtrade is interested, (ii) what a successful collaboration between Fairtrade and academic researchers should entail and (iii) what a collaboration with Fairtrade offers academic researchers. Fairtrade encourages academics to reach out to Fairtrade International with questions, comments and ideas around collaborations via academicpartnerships@fairtrade.net. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars have long studied how organizations can transition towards greater sustainability, but it is only recently that they have begun to investigate a fundamentally new stream in sustainability thinking: the circular economy paradigm. Instead of the 'make‐use‐dispose' approach of a linear economy, a circular economy aims at eliminating waste and avoiding damage to the environment by closing resource loops. Given the recent surge of scholarly interest in the ways in which organizations can change towards working in a more circular way, it is important and timely to verify what scholars have learnt, what remains contested, and what should be done next. To this end, we are reviewing literature on the emerging field of 'Organizational Change towards a Circular Economy' (OCCE). We identify and analyse research that sits at the interface of organizational change theory and the circular economy paradigm and provide a systematic literature review. Our review reveals consensus, ambiguities, and differences in the OCCE literature along three main dimensions of organizational change (i.e., content, process, and context). Furthermore, we develop a novel and encompassing conceptualization of OCCE as well as outline future research opportunities. Overall, our study brings together the growing but fragmented body of OCCE research and outlines scientific and practical avenues for making progress in a more unified and systematic way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractInvestment in transformative climate change education for graduate students can support emergent scholars and practitioners to produce more ethical, effective, and relevant solutions to address climate inequities. Yet, we lack a framework for analyzing how an educational program impacts the multiple dimensions of student’s scientific training to implement equity-focused practices. This study details the development of a theory of change framework for a transformative climate change education program called Asking Different Questions in Climate Change Science. The program, a 10-week co-curricular course with single module options, is designed for research-focused masters and doctoral students at University of California, Davis (UC Davis). Using a participatory planning approach, we built a theory of change for the program based on a diverse body of literature, empirical examples, and qualitative data from nine UC Davis faculty and 11 UC Davis graduate students who study climate change. The theory of change outlines specific course activities and supports in the social, institutional, and cultural aspects of a student’s learning experience to transform how they do climate science. While this theory of change was formed specifically for the ADQCS program, this study offers an approach and framework that others may adapt for their own purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Envisioning trajectories towards sustainability encompasses enacting significant changes in multiple spheres (i.e., infrastructure, policy, practices, behaviors). These changes unfold within the intricate landscapes of wicked problems, where diverse perspectives and potential solutions intersect and often clash. Advancing more equitable and sustainable trajectories demands recognition of and collaboration with diverse voices to uncover meaningful synergies among groups striving to catalyze substantial change. Projects of this nature necessitate the exploration of varied tools and methodologies to elicit, convey, and integrate ideas effectively. Creating spaces for reflexivity is essential for catalyzing more meaningful impact as individuals engage in discussions aimed at sharing and questioning the coherence of their projects while forging synergies, identifying common objectives, and planning long-term outcomes. We present the initial phase of an endeavor in which we developed a software that elicits causal networks based on mapping relations between projects' actions and outcomes. To illustrate our approach, we describe the results of using this software within collaborative workshops with groups spearheading projects initiated by a government entity in Mexico City. By adapting elements of the Theory of Change model, this software transcends the dominant linear project logic by guiding participants in designing causation networks that unveil how different projects can articulate to identify potential common elements and find new possibilities for coordination among initiatives. We discuss the potential of such software application as a dynamic tool to guide and promote reflection and coherence when crafting projects that aim to more meaningfully address sustainability problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In this article we analyzed the extent of the usage of Theories of Change (TOCs) and causal pathways in the evaluation of immunization programs to identify the challenges to generating evidence on how interventions improve immunization. Methods: We analyzed the use of the TOC in impact evaluations (IEs) of immunization interventions published after 2010, and its associated articles. The review includes studies from Evidence Gap Map and Yale review that were conducted in May and March of 2020, respectively. We synthesized data on six domains using NVIVO — program theory, context, assumptions, usage of TOC, use in evaluation, and description causal pathways. Results: Our review included 47 large-scale and 45 small-to medium-scale interventions. Of the included studies, 19% used a TOC, 56% described a causal pathway or used a conceptual diagram with varying degrees of detail, and 25% of the IEs did not provide any information on how their intervention was expected to affect change. Only 19 of the 92 IEs explicitly outlined any assumptions associated with the implementation of the interventions. Forty studies measured the outputs or intermediate outcomes leading to improved immunization coverage. Conclusion: Future implementers and evaluators need to develop clear TOCs that are based on established theory and have clearly articulated the underlying assumptions. Large-scale health system strengthening initiatives implemented by governments, also need to build TOCs and integrate them into their results frameworks. Additionally, there is a need to combine both impact and process evaluations to understand the how context affects the causal pathways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. Community health workers' knowledge, skills and training seem to affect their contribution to 4th-year health sciences student teams who are following an interprofessional learning programme aimed at improving two South African rural communities' health outcomes related to diabetes. Objective. To develop a framework for community health workers to contribute to interprofessional learning teams. Methods. The framework development forms part of previous phases of a multi-method study. The theory of change logic model guided the development of the draft framework, informed by data from two ecogram sessions, five nominal group technique discussions and a scoping review. The final framework was validated by experts during a workshop using forward and backward mapping. Results. The framework addresses the need for community health workers to gain knowledge, skills and training related to diabetes to effectively contribute to interprofessional learning teams. The theory of change process identified community needs and assets, desired results, influential factors, evidence-based strategies and assumptions required to address the problem. Conclusion. The framework focuses on a problem within specific interprofessional learning teams. Collaboration with stakeholders contributed to a rigorous research process, and the validation, refinement and future implementation of the framework. The framework eventually led to the development of an evidence-based training programme comprising knowledge, skills and training strategies related to diabetes. It is predicted that once community health workers have completed this training programme, they will be able to contribute effectively to the interprofessional learning teams. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides an overview of the current state of academic research in event-tourism and its impact on the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDGs). Through a systematic review and bibliometric analysis of 159 articles, this study reveals a moderate alignment between the literature on sustainable event tourism and the UN SDGs. However, certain SDGs, such as No Poverty, Zero Hunger, and Gender Equality, have limited research attention in this context. This study also sheds light on under-researched stakeholders including sponsors, associations, and academic institutions. Drawing on the theory of change proposed by the UN Development Group and stakeholder analysis, the findings presented in this study serve as a bridge between theoretical frameworks and real-world applications. This study provides tangible solutions and strategies for aligning event-tourism practices with the principles and targets outlined in the UN SDGs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Persuasive strategies have been widely operationalized in systems or applications to motivate behaviour change across diverse domains. However, no empirical evidence exists on whether or not persuasive strategies lead to certain emotions to inform which strategies are most appropriate for delivering interventions that not only motivate users to perform target behaviour but also help to regulate their current emotional states. We conducted a large-scale study of 660 participants to investigate if and how individuals including those at different stages of change respond emotionally to persuasive strategies and why. Specifically, we examined the relationship between perceived effectiveness of individual strategies operationalized in a system and perceived emotional states for participants at different stages of behaviour change. Our findings established relations between perceived effectiveness of strategies and emotions elicited in individuals at distinct stages of change and that the perceived emotions vary across stages of change for different reasons. For example, the reward strategy is associated with positive emotion only (i.e. happiness) for individuals across distinct stages of change because it induces feelings of personal accomplishment, provides incentives that increase the urge to achieve more goals, and offers gamified experience. Other strategies are associated with mixed emotions. Our work links emotion theory with behaviour change theories and stages of change theory to develop practical guidelines for designing personalized and emotion-adaptive persuasive systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evaluation capacity building (ECB) is still an emerging area of study in the field of evaluation. The purpose of ECB is to assist program practitioners with implementing higher‐quality evaluation; however, we need better tools and resources to effectively assess ECB efforts. Existing measures typically depend on self‐report as opposed to assessing the artifacts of ECB training. Among the few non‐self‐report tools that support the assessment of ECB efforts are Relational Systems Evaluation rubrics designed to evaluate logic models, pathway models, and evaluation plans. These rubrics were first developed and tested several years ago. The purpose of the current study is to update the Relational Systems Evaluation rubrics to reflect current ECB knowledge. The updated rubrics have good to excellent inter‐rater reliability and high internal consistency. The results of this study contribute to the ECB field by providing measurement tools for assessing the quality of ECB artifacts. The rubrics can also be used by organizations and funders who need a systematic approach for assessing (and comparing) the quality of evaluation plans and visual theory of change models (e.g., logic models). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While much is known about factors associated with deradicalisation and disengagement from violent extremism and terrorism, the underlying mechanisms at play have been under theorised. Literature on criminal desistance has a lot to offer in understanding the process of exiting from extremism, particularly in how it proceeds, the mechanisms at play and why it may or may not be sustained—what we term as the sustainability problem. We draw on criminal desistance scholarship to theoretically unpack the change processes underpinning desistance from extremism and why it is a challenging process for individuals. We propose a theory of cognitive transformation and explore the role of agentic change and external influences on the sustainability of desistance. We link our proposed theory of change to practical implications relating to the role of formal agents and how desistance from extremism can be supported, undermined, and assessed as authentic. Limitations with the theory of change are considered, as well directions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background In this article we analyzed the extent of the usage of Theories of Change (TOCs) and causal pathways in the evaluation of immunization programs to identify the challenges to generating evidence on how interventions improve immunization. Methods We analyzed the use of the TOC in impact evaluations (IEs) of immunization interventions published after 2010, and its associated articles. The review includes studies from Evidence Gap Map and Yale review that were conducted in May and March of 2020, respectively. We synthesized data on six domains using NVIVO — program theory, context, assumptions, usage of TOC, use in evaluation, and description causal pathways. Results Our review included 47 large-scale and 45 small-to medium-scale interventions. Of the included studies, 19% used a TOC, 56% described a causal pathway or used a conceptual diagram with varying degrees of detail, and 25% of the IEs did not provide any information on how their intervention was expected to affect change. Only 19 of the 92 IEs explicitly outlined any assumptions associated with the implementation of the interventions. Forty studies measured the outputs or intermediate outcomes leading to improved immunization coverage. Conclusion Future implementers and evaluators need to develop clear TOCs that are based on established theory and have clearly articulated the underlying assumptions. Large-scale health system strengthening initiatives implemented by governments, also need to build TOCs and integrate them into their results frameworks. Additionally, there is a need to combine both impact and process evaluations to understand the how context affects the causal pathways.

Systemic models of couple and family therapy (CFT) are often categorized into two transtheoretical paradigms: modernism and postmodernism. Traditionally, these paradigms have been positioned in opposition to one another and are critiqued for their respective epistemologies and stances on the definitions of truth and reality. The binarizing of systemic models has created theoretical divisions in the field of CFT that restricts many clinicians from addressing the limitations and harnessing the benefits of each transtheoretical paradigm. Metamodernism, a philosophical paradigm that emphasizes theoretical pluralism, reflexivity, and dialectical processes, has arisen as a potential solution for addressing the philosophical tensions between modernism and postmodernism; however, there currently exists no approach to systemic therapy that aligns with the tenets of this paradigm. This article delineates the application of metamodernism in the field of systemic therapy through the presentation of Dynamic Narrative Therapy, an innovative approach to systemic therapy drawn from the integration of two foundational theoretical models (i.e., strategic family therapy and narrative family therapy). This integration synergizes the strategic concepts of circular causality and feedback loops as well as the narrative use of deconstruction, externalization, and narrative metaphor to illustrate a more comprehensive approach to the therapeutic change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite a key feature of the Fourth Industrial Revolution and a core strength of liberal arts and sciences education, interdisciplinarity is also a noisy buzzword which does not always make sense from an institutional point of view. Traditional interdisciplinary fields take it for granted like fish in the water while, somewhere else, people keep a distance with questions. Doing interdisciplinarity faces additional boundary challenges due to strong gravitational forces that are national, historical, and increasingly from between college and workplace. For a higher education institution whose vision for robust interdisciplinarity is rooted across these boundaries, it is not enough to set up a curriculum, hoping that once and for all the train of interdisciplinarity will roar on. In reality, it may take a higher magnitude of interdisciplinarity and constant enabling mechanisms to balance out certain gravitational forces, such as the pro-STEM and pro-exam tendencies in Chinese higher education. This study surveyed the inaugural undergraduate class of Duke Kunshan University (DKU) as well as its undergraduate faculty to propose a theory of change for scaled interdisciplinarity. The resulting theory of change elaborates on an actionable definition of interdisciplinarity using a vocabulary common to college and workplace, a mobility lens for measuring and leveraging different and especially higher magnitudes of interdisciplinarity, and a linchpin mechanism for energizing this mobility so that interdisciplinarity is more entwined with other institutional facets of teaching, learning, and research.Kindly check and confirm the edit made in the Article title. Checked and confirmed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Sex and gender are inadequately considered in health and medical research, policy and practice, leading to preventable disparities in health and wellbeing. Several global institutions, journals, and funding bodies have developed policies and guidelines to improve the inclusion of diverse participants and consideration of sex and gender in research design and reporting and the delivery of clinical care. However, according to recent evaluations, these policies have had limited impact on the inclusion of diverse research participants, adequate reporting of sex and gender data and reducing preventable inequities in access to, and quality provision of, healthcare. In Australia, the Sex and Gender Policies in Medical Research (SGPMR) project aims to address sex and gender bias in health and medical research by (i) examining how sex and gender are currently considered in Australian research policy and practice; (ii) working with stakeholders to develop policy interventions; and (iii) understanding the wider impacts, including economic, of improved sex and gender consideration in Australian health and medical research. In this paper we describe the development of a theory of change (ToC) for the SGPMR project. The ToC evolved from a two-stage process consisting of key stakeholder interviews and a consultation event. The ToC aims to identify the pathways to impact from improved consideration of sex and gender in health and medical research, policy and practice, and highlight how key activities and policy levers can lead to improvements in clinical practice and health outcomes. In describing the development of the ToC, we present an entirely novel framework for outlining how sex and gender can be appropriately considered within the confines of health and medical research, policy and practice.

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Introduction We report a mixed-methods process evaluation embedded within a randomised controlled trial. We aimed to test and refine a theory of change model hypothesising key causal assumptions to understand how the New Interventions for Independence in Dementia Study (NIDUS)-Family (a manualised, multimodal psychosocial intervention), was effective relative to usual care, on the primary outcome of Goal Attainment Scaling (GAS) over 1 year. Methods In 2021–2022, intervention-arm dyads completed an acceptability questionnaire developed to test causal assumptions. We conducted qualitative interviews with dyads and intervention facilitators, purposively selected for diverse follow-up GAS scores. We collected observational data from intervention session recordings. We thematically analysed data, then integrated qualitative and quantitative data. Results 174/204 (85.3%) dyads allocated to NIDUS-Family, fully completed it, 18 partially completed, while 12 received no intervention. We interviewed 27/192 (14%) of dyads receiving any sessions, and 9/10 facilitators; and observed 12 sessions. 47/192 (24.5%) of carers completed the acceptability questionnaire. We identified four themes: (A) 'Someone to talk to helps dyads feel supported'; (B) 'NIDUS-Family helps carers change their perspective'; (C) 'Personalisation helps people living with dementia maintain their identity' and (D) 'Small steps help dyads move forward'. Conclusion Key causal pathway mechanisms were: a respectful, trusting and impartial relationship with the facilitator: supporting the development of meaningful goals and support to find manageable solutions. Core implementation factors were delivery of the modules from a consistent facilitator across regular sessions. Core contextual factors influencing these mechanisms were dyadic participation and understanding of abilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Paris Agreement ushered in an era of climate governance underpinned by a polycentric theory of change, emphasizing experimentation, collaboration, and innovation while downplaying political contestation, power asymmetries, and the need for regulatory action by the state. This article explores the roles the state plays in polycentric climate governance, focusing on the tension between the regulatory state, where authorities set, monitor, and enforce rules, and the orchestrating state, which facilitates collaboration with nonstate actors to induce behavioral change. Using decarbonization in Sweden as an illustrative case study, the article synthesizes the results of two research projects evaluating the promises and limits of polycentric climate governance. The results problematize the view that Sweden is a forerunner in climate governance, suggesting that while the Swedish government has mobilized support from important industries and cities in favor of decarbonization, that support may be insufficient to achieve necessary societal transformation for deep decarbonization. Finally, the study reflects on the conditions necessary for polycentric governance to effectively decarbonize society, highlighting the pivotal role of the regulatory state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A transition to clean fuels and technology for cooking is increasingly recognised as a cornerstone of sustainable development. However, sufficient, appropriate, affordable finance to support the transition is lacking. Grounded in primary data collection via expert interviews, this study's research objective was to critically assess development finance institutions' (DFIs) delivery of climate and development finance to address cooking poverty. Interview findings underscore DFIs' important role in the transition, including to create the ecosystem conditions conducive to sustained investment. However, as a group they are not demonstrating the risk appetite and financial solutions that clean cooking markets need. Nor are they operating with the agility and flexibility required for rapid scale-up. Consequently, DFIs are not optimally fulfilling their mandates to create additionality and mobilise private capital in these markets. Interviewees call for DFIs to reconsider their approach, and we rely on these findings to posit a theory of change for clean cooking finance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sex and gender are inadequately considered in health and medical research, policy and practice, leading to preventable disparities in health and wellbeing. Several global institutions, journals, and funding bodies have developed policies and guidelines to improve the inclusion of diverse participants and consideration of sex and gender in research design and reporting and the delivery of clinical care. However, according to recent evaluations, these policies have had limited impact on the inclusion of diverse research participants, adequate reporting of sex and gender data and reducing preventable inequities in access to, and quality provision of, healthcare. In Australia, the Sex and Gender Policies in Medical Research (SGPMR) project aims to address sex and gender bias in health and medical research by (i) examining how sex and gender are currently considered in Australian research policy and practice; (ii) working with stakeholders to develop policy interventions; and (iii) understanding the wider impacts, including economic, of improved sex and gender consideration in Australian health and medical research. In this paper we describe the development of a theory of change (ToC) for the SGPMR project. The ToC evolved from a two-stage process consisting of key stakeholder interviews and a consultation event. The ToC aims to identify the pathways to impact from improved consideration of sex and gender in health and medical research, policy and practice, and highlight how key activities and policy levers can lead to improvements in clinical practice and health outcomes. In describing the development of the ToC, we present an entirely novel framework for outlining how sex and gender can be appropriately considered within the confines of health and medical research, policy and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This article aims to analyze entrepreneurs’ perceptions about the contributions of Model C in modeling their social businesses. Originality/value: The study contributes theoretically and empirically when addressing social businesses linked to opportunities and their development challenges by using the Model C tool in its modeling, exploring institutional integration, and allowing a holistic, systemic structure of value creation activities. Design/methodology/approach: The study adopts a qualitative method of a descriptive type based on multiple cases in three Brazilian social businesses. For data collection, an interview script developed from the analysis categories of the Model C framework was applied, as well as the interviewees’ perception of how the tool helps the development of their business model, direct observation, and documentary analysis. The analysis of the results was performed with the aid of the software ATLAS.ti. Findings: Based on the assumption that a social business model mixes several institutional logics, combining social and financial missions in a balanced way, the results show that Model C can structure the business’s organizational capacity and social value. However, it cannot fully quantify the financial value generated by social businesses, leading the social entrepreneur to use complementary financial tools. There is evidence for the creation of new tools that assist in obtaining innovative solutions to address societal challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Refugee children and young people have high levels of unmet mental health needs. A trauma‐informed service transformation framework was applied with 14 professionals in Turkey. Through participatory focus groups, professionals co‐produced service plans and considered enabling and challenging factors for implementation. Data were analysed through a thematic codebook approach. Established themes suggested that implementation should concurrently address societal barriers, agency fragmentation, lack of contextual interventions and sustainability. These led to the development of a Theory of Change. A trauma‐informed and scaled service model of collaborative care can holistically meet refugee children and young people's complex needs, while maximising sparse resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mercury contamination from artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) currently accounts for 37% of the global total, often affecting tropical regions where regulations, if they exist, are often poorly enforced. Ingestion by people and other animals damages the nervous, reproductive, and cognitive systems. Despite the efforts of many organizations and governments to curb mercury releases from ASGM, it is increasing globally. There are many possible interventions, all with significant complexity and cost. Therefore, we recommend taking an established systematic approach to articulate the current situation and construct theories of change (ToC) for different possible interventions for any government or organization trying to solve this problem. Here we present a high-level situation analysis and generic ToC to support a more coordinated approach that explicitly builds upon previous experience to identify organization- and situation-appropriate engagement on this issue. We then illustrate the use of these generic models to construct a specific ToC with a policy-focused entry point. This includes interventions through (1) engagement with the global Minamata Convention on Mercury; (2) support for existing national laws and policies connected to ASGM and mercury contamination; and (3) engagement of indigenous people and local communities with governments to meet the governments' legal obligations. By methodically articulating assumptions about interventions, connections among actions, and desired outcomes, it is possible to create a more effective approach that will encourage more coordination and cooperation among governments and other practitioners to maximize their investments and support broad environmental and socio-political outcomes necessary to address this pernicious problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Liberation philosophy seeks to contribute to the liberation of the oppressed and to the creation of a more just society. A meliorative philosophy is one that improves human lives. A liberation philosophy can be regarded as meliorative only if it has a compelling theory of change. A theory of change for philosophical interventions should explain how they can contribute to social, political or economic change. The main components of such a theory are identified and shown to be present in the work of the best liberation philosophers, such as Martin Luther King Jr. A meliorative philosophy improves human lives by, among other things, providing the kind of guidance that leads to better decision-making and improved conduct. Philosophy should conceive of the guidance it offers as co-created and reflect on the conditions for effective co-creation. The distinctive virtues of meliorative philosophy, including liberation philosophy, are personal qualities that enable co-creation. These include humility, practicality, an openness to diverse perspectives, and an instinct for lived complexity. There are philosophical purists who reject the demand that philosophy should answer to practical needs. We should be sceptical about some of the claims made by philosophical purists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Health literate self-management education is at stake for the prevention and management of non-communicable diseases in low resources settings and countries. Here we describe the Learning Nest in Ordinary Context (NA-CO in French, Nids d'Apprentissage en Contexte Ordinaire) aiming at the structuring of health education programs at the micro- (education sessions) and the meso-levels (adapted to context). The Learning Nest model was designed based on a combination on health literacy principles and on studies conducted with vulnerable people with non-communicable diseases. Observation of NA-CO active-learning sessions found them to be operational and relevant as they center on access, understanding, and use of health information while integrating the ordinary context of learners. The Learning Nest packages (including several adapted thematic sessions, training of trainers and development in context) were shown to be feasible and realistic in diverse locations (Reunion, Mali, Mayotte, Mauritius, Burundi). Qualitative and intervention studies have documented the potential usefulness of the Learning Nest model for context- and setting-specific health literacy interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: In 2018, The Live Well Allegheny: Lifting Wellness for African Americans (LWA2) Initiative was developed to support six priority, Black communities in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania to address health equity in chronic disease. The LWA2 coalition members participated in ongoing anti-racism and racial equity sessions with a nationally recognized anti-racist facilitation team. The sessions included a 2-days experience in January 2020 along with follow up meetings throughout 2020. Methods: Surveys were administered to understand their perceptions related to anti-racism and oppression and subsequent actions as a result of the sessions. Additionally, we conducted nine in-depth interviews with organizational partners (January -May 2020) to evaluate the overall effectiveness of the coalition and inform future activities. Results: Ten participants completed the post session surveys. Seven out of 10 survey respondents felt they had a good understanding of how oppression (racism, sexism, capitalism) influenced their life and work. However, the majority indicated needing the tools to implement anti-racist strategies in their work. The in-depth interviews with organizational partners revealed that racial equity was of concern to all partners but there was variability in intentionality around racial equity as a core element of each organization's mission, goals and subsequent actions. Discussion: As a result of the interviews, coalition members developed a racial equity statement and theory of change for implementation in the coalition work and within individual organizations along with a plan for implementing an equity audit of the coalition. Coalitions of this kind should be intentional about implementing continuous strategies related to anti-racism for structural changes toward achieving racial equity in their overall work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: There remain a number of debates and conflicts about the concept of rewilding which can be barriers to its application. Some of these conflicts stem from the variety of contextual interpretations of rewilding, leading to conflict between rewilding theories and approaches. Conclusions have also been drawn about rewilding based on limited case studies, so that emergent rewilding theories aren't applicable to all rewilding projects, limiting their support in the field. Past theories have distinguished different types of rewilding, encouraging debate over the proposed methods, although in practice these approaches often share similar goals and use similar interventions. One barrier to achieving consensus in the practice of rewilding is that there are no clear guidelines for rewilding, and there are limited broad-scale studies focusing on how rewilding is practiced. This paper addresses this by offering the first broad study of rewilding guidelines and interventions. Methods: A grounded theory study was undertaken, using data sourced from rewilding organisations, case studies, and research. Expressions were coded in the data relating to intentions for how rewilding should be practiced and the interventions used. Results: Drawing from these data, the paper offers three tools to guide rewilding practitioners: (1) an overview of guidelines for rewilding practice, (2) a list of interventions used in rewilding, considering them against rewilding goals, (3) a theory of change framework to guide rewilding application. Discussion: The tools presented here will inform work towards IUCN rewilding guidelines. Several areas that require further consideration are highlighted. We hope that this initial study of application can improve agreement and collaboration among the rewilding community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Online delivery of community music groups has become more widely accepted following the COVID-19 pandemic, and may reduce barriers to attendance for certain demographics, including mothers with caring responsibilities. However, different interaction patterns may affect group processes, altering a programme's underlying mechanisms of change when adapted for online delivery. This research compares in-person and videoconference delivery of the Lullaby Project, a therapeutic community music group for mothers with infants aged under 3. It explores engagement, participation and group processes, and elucidates the mechanisms of change for both modes of implementation. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine mothers and seven musicians who had experienced one of three delivery methods: (1) face-to-face; (2) face-to-face and online combination and (3) online. Interviews were analysed inductively using thematic analysis and eleven sub-themes were identified within three overarching themes: (1) engagement; (2) group processes and (3) change mechanisms. Mothers perceived benefits and formed meaningful relationships in-person and online, although the distinct group processes and change mechanisms suggest the delivery methods constitute distinct interventions. Specifically, relationships were formed on an individual level during in-person delivery, whereas group-based connections were more likely with online delivery. Further research is needed to explore a diversity of experiences, and to evaluate the efficacy of online delivery of community music groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Policy PointsFaced with urgent threats to human health and well‐being such as climate change, calls among the academic community are getting louder to contribute more effectively to the implementation of the evidence generated by our research into public policy.As interest in knowledge translation (KT) surges, so have a number of anxieties about the field's shortcomings. Our paper is motivated by a call in the literature to render useful advice for those beginning in KT on how to advance impact at a policy level.By integrating knowledge from fields such as political science, moral psychology, and marketing, we suggest that thinking and acting like marketers, lobbyists, movements, and political scientists would help us advance on the quest to bridge the chasm between evidence and policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research efforts concerning COVID-19 primarily focused on the macro-level impacts of the pandemic on multiple fronts. Less attention was paid to individuals and less still to the socio-economic condition of the poorest sectors. This research addresses this gap by utilizing the theory of change (ToC) of asset ownership to examine the effects of livelihood asset ownership on the poverty status of 200 fisherfolk households in the Bicol Region, Philippines, during the pandemic. The study employed descriptive measures and logistic regression with principal component analysis (PCA) to examine the survey data. Results revealed that ownership of productive assets increased the likelihood of households maintaining the status of nonpoor compared to households who owned less to nothing. Whereas, households with more physical assets were more likely to fall below the poverty line during the pandemic. Defining poverty in terms of livelihood asset ownership has important implications for policymakers. Addressing these evidence gaps enables a nuanced analysis of the socio-economic condition of fishing households during the pandemic. The study suggests that aid organizations and funding agencies should complement grants with efforts that promote asset ownership through capacity-building services like training, mentoring, and providing market links for fishing communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While scholars use many theories and models in health communication, only a handful of them are commonly used in studies focusing on behavior change and prediction. One of these is the Health Belief Model. Even though the model has been applied widely, not much has been done to contextualize the model for contemporary application in Africa. In the absence of a theory by and for Africans that addresses behavior prediction from a health communication viewpoint, there is a need to contextualize the available theories for application in the African context. This study aims to expose additional constructs that have been proposed to contextualize HBM for studies in the continent. Such suggestions for extensions and additional constructs could provide insights into gaps that scholars see as not addressed by the original version of HBM. This essay reviews 9 articles that either proposed or recommended additional constructs. The findings of the review show that to contextualize the model for application in Africa, some of the key additional constructs to consider are community influence, cultural background, subjective norms, social support, and environmental factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evaluators widely utilize theory of change or impact pathway approaches to design and evaluate interventions. In research settings, there is increasing demand for ex ante impact pathways that are place‐based, coherent, and plausible, in order to foster more impactful interventions. Foresight approaches, which enable a collaborative, structured, and systematic way to anticipate, prepare, and affect the course of change, can help achieve this by exploring diverse future scenarios, the consequences of different assumptions, or how to overcome threats and leverage opportunities for change. Through three case examples, we show how foresight tools used prior to developing impact pathways can free participants from preconceived notions of the intervention's context, actors, and impacts, and thus support creative and systemic analyses of the future to rethink the present. They extend the analysis of how different actors can shape the future, identifying effects that might otherwise be overlooked or marginalized during the planning and evaluation of the intervention, while also helping to identify the conditions necessary for desired impacts. Nonetheless, their use entails evaluative judgments about the potential impacts to be prioritized in intervention design and evaluation. This is especially relevant in the case of research where scientific or technical aspects are usually prioritized. Finally, there is an entry cost to foresight tools for evaluators, in particular for the facilitation of strategic thinking about the future. However, we recommend them as a worthwhile addition to the evaluator's toolbox to broaden the scope of design and evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The theory of change is an established, widely used approach to guide the design, implementation, and evaluation of change initiatives. Methodological literature primarily focuses on this approach as a way to model causal processes and, secondarily, as a participatory way for groups to explore a change process. We elevate a third use of a theory of change process: to (re)imagine future possibilities. Part 1 synthesizes prior literature to contrast three purposes (i.e., explanation, exploration, and (re)imagination) and emphasizes the opportunities for forward‐looking, imaginative uses by combining the theory of change with foresight approaches. Part 2 presents a case example of a year‐long process to reimagine how to support social enterprises and women entrepreneurs in Australia and the Pacific involving iterative co‐development of a theory of change complemented by futures thinking. We close with lessons and future directions at the intersection of the theory of change and futures studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Limited research has examined the active ingredients and mechanisms of change of naturalistic developmental behavioral interventions (NDBIs). The present study used an exploratory sequential mixed-methods design to develop a comprehensive Theory of Change of Project ImPACT, an empirically supported NDBI. We used qualitative data from interviews with intervention experts (n = 10), community providers (n = 22), and caregivers (n = 12) to develop a comprehensive causal model of the intervention process. We then tested select paths of the causal model using path analyses with an archival dataset (n = 92). The causal model described how developmental techniques aimed at supporting children's attention and engagement lay the foundation for more adult-directed learning opportunities and subsequent child skill growth. However, hypothesized causal relationships were not supported by our quantitative analyses. In the future, this research can be used to develop and prioritize nuanced research questions related to the timing, optimization, and mechanistic process underlying NDBIs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]