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The study aims were to 1) examine profiles of perception of motor competence (PMC) in relation to actual motor competence (AMC), i.e. under-estimators (UEs), realistic estimators (REs) and over-estimators (OEs) and 2) investigate associations between the profiles and selected socioecological factors at the individual, family and environmental levels. PMC (Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence) and AMC (Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition) were administered to a representative sample of children from 37 childcare centres in Finland (n=441;6.2±0.6yrs;52% boys). Socioecological factors were investigated using a parental questionnaire. The three profiles were formed based on age- and gender-adjusted PMC and AMC z-scores. Multinomial logistic regression showed that OEs (n=81; p=0.04) tended to be younger than REs (n=306; p=0.04) and UEs (n=54; p=0.03). Parents of OEs reported more child health and developmental issues than parents of REs (p=0.03). Parents of UEs self-reported providing more support for physical activity than parents’ of REs (p=0.04). REs tended to live in denser population areas than UEs (n=54; p=0.03). Whilst PMC profiles revealed some socioecological differences, future research needs to focus on a broader range of potential correlates and untangle methodological analyses challenges to deepen the knowledge about PMC development in children.

The assessment of motor proficiency is essential across childhood to identify children’s strengths and difficulties and to provide adequate instruction and opportunities; assessment is a powerful tool to promote children’s development. This study aimed to investigate the hierarchal order of the Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition (TGMD-3) items regarding difficulty levels and the differential item functioning across gender and age group (3 to 5, 6 to 8, and 9 to 10 years old). Participants are 989 children (3 to 10.9 years; girls n = 491) who were assessed using TGMD-3. For locomotor skills, appropriate results reliability (alpha = 1.0), infit (M = 0.99; SD = 0.17), outfit (M = 1.18; SD = 0.64), and point-biserial correlations (rpb values from 0.14 to 0.58) were found; the trend was similar for ball skills: reliability (alpha = 1.0), infit (M = 0.99; SD = 0.13), outfit (M = 1.08; SD = 0.52); point-biserial correlations (rpb values from 0.06 to 0.59) were obtained. Two motor criteria: gallop, item-1, and one-hand forehand strike, item-4, were the most difficult items; in contrast, run, item-2, and two-hand catch, item-2, were the easiest items. Differential item functioning for age was observed in nine locomotor and ten ball skills items. These items were easier for older children compared to younger ones. The TGMD-3 has items with different difficulty levels capable of differential functioning across age groups.

We aimed to calculate interrater reliability of the Test of Gross Motor Development—Third Edition (TGMD-3) after raters reached a consensus regarding measurement criteria. Three raters measured the fundamental movement skills of 25 children on the TGMD-3 at two different times: (a) once when simply following the measurement criteria in the TGMD-3 manual and (b) after a 9-month washout period, following the raters’ consensus building for the measurement criteria for each skill. After calculating and comparing the interrater reliability of these three raters across these two rating times, we found improved interrater reliability after the raters’ consensus-building discussions on ratings of both locomotor skills (moderate-to-good reliability on two of six skills initially and at least moderate-to-excellent on four of six skills following criteria consensus building) and ball skills (moderate-to-good reliability on one of seven skills initially and at least moderate-to-excellent reliability on four of seven skills following criteria consensus building). For subtest scores and overall test scores, raters achieved at least moderate-to-good reliability on their second, postconsensus building ratings. Based on this improved reliability following consensus building, we recommend that researchers include rater consensus building before assessing children’s fundamental movement skills or guiding curriculum interventions in physical education from TGMD-3 data., Disclosure statement: The authors report there are no competing interest to declare. Funding details: This work was supported by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/ and European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), a way to make Europe, under grant PID2021-128640OB-I00. Carballo-Fazanes was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities under grant FPU19/02017.

This study aimed to determine the inter-rater reliability of TGMD-3 after the raters’ consensus. Three raters assessed the fundamental movement skills (FMS) of 25 children in two stages: 1) following the criteria assessment of the test; 2) after (nine-month wash-our period) a rater agreement of the performance criteria for each skill. Inter-rater reliability between three raters, calculated and compared between both evaluations’ periods, increased from 2 of 6 locomotor skills (moderate reliability before agreement) to 4 of 6 (after), and from 1 of 7 ball skills (before) to 4 of 7 (after). For locomotor and ball skills subtest and overall scores, at least moderate post-agreement reliability was achieved in all three cases. This study provides evidence that following rater consensus, inter-rater reliability increases. It is recommended to reach an agreement between raters prior to schoolchildren’s FMS assessment regarding research in physical literacy or to guide appropriate curriculum interventions in Physical Education.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES Children with Down Syndrome, in addition to motor and intellectual delay, also have language delay and impaired verbal memory, which can make it difficult to understand and select the information received to perform certain tasks or more complex motor skills. Thus, adding pedagogical support tools for both assessment and teaching of skills, creating approaches that adapt to the way these children process and perceive the environment, can favor a more adequate assessment of their motor performance. Objective: To test the validity and reliability of the use of the Gross Motor Skills (GMS) visual support application for the Gross Motor Development Test - 3 (TGMD-3) and to analyze the focus of attention and intrinsic motivation with the use of this support in children with Down Syndrome. Materials and methods: A randomized crossover clinical trial, composed of 24 children aged between 3 and 10 years, of both sexes, 10 with Down Syndrome (DS) and 14 neurotypical (NT), obtained for convenience. Motor performance was evaluated using the TGMD-3 following two different protocols for demonstrating skills: traditional protocol (PT) with demonstration performed by the examiner and application protocol (PApp), using animations from the GMS application. In the first evaluation, the randomization of the groups was performed, where half were evaluated by the PT and the other half with the PApp. During the instruction of each protocol, the children were filmed to analyze the focus of attention. After seven days, the groups were reassessed with the inversion of the protocols. A follow-up was performed after 20 days with one of the randomly defined protocols. At the end of each evaluation, the children answered the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) to assess how motivated they were with the activities. Results: Both protocols demonstrated good to excellent levels of internal consistency and excellent levels of intra- and inter-rater and testretest reliability. There was no difference in the comparison of the raw data of the TGMD-3 subscales in both groups, between the two protocols, however, there was a significant difference in favor of the PApp, for the DS group, in the total score of the TGMD-3 (PApp: 17 .40±8.06 and PT: 15.90±7.52). The number of attention deviations was significantly lower in the PApp for NT children (41.93±32.62) compared to PT (57.07±43.24), since the time spent with deviations was lower for both groups in the Papp (DS: 75.80±48.90 and NT: 41.00±30.30) compared to PT (DS: 150.00±65.78 and NT: 67.07±49.79). The time of focus of attention showed no difference between the groups as a function of the protocol. The total time spent on instruction was significantly lower with the use of the PApp, for the DS group (409.30±68.15) compared to the PT (502.10±77.02). Regarding intrinsic motivation, there was no statistical difference in the IMI scores, although the scores were favorable to the PApp in both groups. Conclusion: The use of the GMS application is valid and reliable to be used in the application of the TGMD-3, favoring the channeling of attention and optimizing the time spent on test instruction, with promising effects on intrinsic motivation. Crianças com Síndrome de Down, além do atraso motor e intelectual, também apresentam atraso na linguagem e memória verbal prejudicada, o que pode dificultar a compreensão e seleção das informações recebidas para executar determinadas tarefas ou habilidades motoras mais complexas. Com isso, adicionar ferramentas de suporte pedagógico tanto para avaliação quanto para o ensino destas habilidades, criando abordagens que se adaptem a forma como estas crianças processam e percebem o ambiente, pode favorecer uma avaliação mais adequada do seu desempenho motor. Objetivo: Testar a validade e confiabilidade do uso do aplicativo de suporte visual Gross Motor Skills (AppGMS) para o Teste de Desenvolvimento Motor Grosso - 3 (TGMD-3) e analisar o foco de atenção e a motivação intrínseca com uso deste suporte em crianças com Síndrome de Down. Materiais e métodos: Ensaio clínico randomizado cruzado, composto por 24 crianças com idade entre 3 e 10 anos, de ambos os sexos, 10 com Síndrome de Down (SD) e 14 neurotípicas (NT), obtidas por conveniência. O desempenho motor foi avaliado através do TGMD3 seguindo dois protocolos diferentes de demonstração das habilidades: protocolo tradicional (PT) com demonstração realizada pelo examinador e protocolo aplicativo (PApp), com uso de animações do AppGMS. Na primeira avaliação foi realizada a randomização dos grupos onde metade foi avaliada pelo PT e a outra metade com o PApp. Durante a instrução de cada protocolo, as crianças foram filmadas para análise do foco de atenção. Após sete dias os grupos foram reavaliados com a inversão dos protocolos. Um follow-up foi realizado após 20 dias com um dos protocolos, aleatoriamente definidos. Ao final de cada avaliação as crianças responderam ao Inventário de Motivação Intrínseca (IMI) para avaliar o quanto ficaram motivadas com as atividades. Resultados: Ambos os protocolos demonstraram níveis bons a excelentes de consistência interna e excelentes níveis de confiabilidade intra e inter avaliador e de teste-reteste. Não houve diferença na comparação dos dados brutos das subescalas do TGMD-3 em ambos os grupos, entre os dois protocolos, entretanto, houve diferença significativa a favor do PApp, para o grupo SD, no escore total do TGMD-3 (PApp: 17,40±8,06 e PT: 15,90±7,52). O número de desvios de atenção foi significativamente menor no PApp para as crianças NT (41,93±32,62) comparado ao PT (57,07±43,24), já o tempo gasto com desvios foi menor para ambos os grupos no Papp (SD: 75,80±48,90 e NT: 41,00±30,30) em comparação ao PT (SD: 150,00±65,78 e NT: 67,07±49,79). O tempo de foco de atenção não apresentou diferença entre os grupos em função do protocolo. O tempo total gasto com instrução foi significativamente menor com o uso do PApp, para o grupo SD (409,30±68,15) comparado ao PT (502,10±77,02). Em relação a motivação intrínseca, não houve diferença estatística nos escores do IMI, embora as pontuações tenham sido favoráveis ao PApp em ambos os grupos. Conclusão: O uso do aplicativo GMS é válido e confiável para ser utilizado na aplicação do TGMD-3, favorecendo a canalização da atenção e otimizando o tempo gasto com instrução do teste, com efeitos promissores sobre a motivação intrínseca.

In children, motor competence (MC) and the amount of physical activity are tightly interconnected. In adults with Down syndrome (DS), MC has been poorly addressed, resulting in a limited understanding of the possibility to improve MC over time. Here, we aim to: (1) investigate MC in adults with DS by comparing them with a group of typically developed peers and (2) verify the effect of an adapted karate program on MC. Adults with DS (DSG; n = 57) and typically developed adults (TDG; n = 21) performed the Test of Gross Motor Development version 3 (TGMD-3). The total TGMD-3 score (TOTTGMD-3), the locomotor (LOCTGMD-3), and object control (OBJTGMD-3) scores were computed. After a 40 week adapted karate program, DSG (n = 37) underwent the post-training TGMD-3 assessment. Compared to TDG, DSG showed lower TOTTGMD-3 (DSG: 45.5 ± 17.3; TDG: 77.3 ± 9.5), LOCTGMD-3 (DSG: 22.2 ± 10.0; TDG: 36.2 ± 7.6) and OBJTGMD-3 (DSG: 23.3 ± 10.9; TDG: 41.1 ± 5.6). After the training, TOTTGMD-3, LOCTGMD-3 and OBJTGMD-3 increased by 35.6%, 30.0% and 40.7%, respectively. Our results suggest that MC acquisition does not evolve into a mature form in adulthood in individuals with DS. Moreover, a brief exposure to an adapted karate program induces an increase in motor competence in DS, even in adulthood.

The objective of this paper is to determine how is the global motor performance and fundamental motor skills of elementary school students in general and compared between genders. This cross-sectional study evaluated the motor performance of schoolchildren aged 7 to 10 years old. Weight and height were measured, the socioeconomic class and routine of the participants were determined, and motor performance was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development – ​​3 (TGMD-3). Were adopted the measures of large motor quotient, gross overall score and subtest, measured by skills, in addition to qualitative analysis. The overall motor performance of students is below expectations for their age, especially in ball skills. Emphasis for girls who were worse than boys, more specifically on skills to dribble and kicking a stationary ball. It concluded that the stimuli received by children throughout life, especially with manipulative activities, including in physical education classes, were not enough to develop the children's fundamental motor skills. El objetivo de este trabajo es determinar cómo es el desempeño motor global y la motricidad fundamental de los estudiantes de primaria en general y comparados entre géneros. Se trata de un estudio transversal que evaluó el desempeño motor de escolares de 7 a 10 años. Se midió el peso y la talla, se determinó la clase socioeconómica y la rutina de los participantes y se evaluó el desempeño motor mediante el Test de Desarrollo Motor Grueso - 3 (TGMD-3). Se adoptaron medidas de cociente motor grande, puntuación general bruta y subprueba, medidas por habilidades, además del análisis cualitativo. El rendimiento motor general de los estudiantes está por debajo de las expectativas para su edad, especialmente en habilidades con el balón. Énfasis en las niñas que eran incluso peores que los niños, más específicamente en sus habilidades para rebotar y patear. Se concluye que los estímulos recibidos por los niños a lo largo de la vida, especialmente con el manejo de objetos, incluso en las clases de educación física, no fueron suficientes para desarrollar las habilidades motoras fundamentales de los niños. O objetivo do trabalho é determinar como está o desempenho motor global e nas habilidades motoras fundamentais de alunos do ensino fundamental I no geral e comparadas entre os sexos. Trata-se de um estudo transversal que avaliou o desempenho motor de escolares de 7 a 10 anos de idade. Foram aferidas a massa e a estatura, determinadas a classe socioeconômica e a rotina dos participantes, e o desempenho motor foi avaliado através do Test of Gross Motor Development – 3 (TGMD-3). Foram adotadas as medidas de quociente motor amplo, escore bruto geral e por subteste, medidas por habilidades além da análise qualitativa. O desempenho motor global dos alunos está aquém do esperado para a idade, principalmente nas habilidades com bola. Ênfase para as meninas que foram ainda piores que os meninos, mais especificamente nas habilidades de quicar e chutar a bola. Conclui-se que os estímulos recebidos pelas crianças ao longo da vida, principalmente com manuseio de objetos, inclusive nas aulas de educação física, não foram o suficiente para desenvolver as habilidades motoras fundamentais das crianças.

We investigated child, family, and environmental factors associated with young children's perceptions of locomotor (LM) and object control (OC) skills. The participants comprised 472 children (6.22 ± 0.63) and their parents. The children were assessed for their perception of motor competence in LM and OC skills (using the pictorial scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for young children), and actual motor competence (Test of Gross Motor Development 3rd edition and Körperkoordinationstest Für Kinder). Anthropometrics were calculated using the children's body mass index standard deviation scores. A parent questionnaire included questions about child factors (sex, child's independent walking age, time spent sedentary and outdoors, participation in organized sport activities, and access to electronic devices), family factors (parent educational level, physical activity frequency, and sedentary behavior), and environmental factors (access to sport facilities). Variance analysis sought to identify age-related differences, and a linear regression model examined correlates of children's perception of LM and OC skills. The children's movement skill perceptions were found to be generally high. Four factors explained 5.7% of the variance in perceptions of LM skills and 7.5% of the variance in perceptions of OC skills. Two factors, lower age and higher actual motor competence, explained most of the children's skill perceptions. Access to electronic devices (less) and Body mass index (BMI) (higher) were associated with perceptions of LM skills. Participation in organized sport activities (higher) and parental education (lower) were associated with perceptions of OC skills. When promoting children's physical activity and motor competence, perceptions of motor competence are an important consideration.

The Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD) is one of the most common tools for assessing the fundamental movement skills (FMS) in children between 3 and 10 years. This study aimed to examine the intra-rater and inter-rater reliability of the TGMD—3rd Edition (TGMD-3) between expert and novice raters using live and video assessment. Five raters [2 experts and 3 novices (one of them BSc in Physical Education and Sport Science)] assessed and scored the performance of the TGMD-3 of 25 healthy children [Female: 60%, mean (standard deviation) age 9.16 (1.31)]. Schoolchildren were attending at one public elementary school during the academic year 2019–2020 from Santiago de Compostela (Spain). Raters scored each children performance through two viewing moods (live and slow-motion). The ICC (Intraclass Correlation Coefficient) was used to determine the agreement between raters. Our results showed moderate-to-excellent intra-rater reliability for overall score and locomotor and ball skills subscales, moderate-to-good inter-rater reliability for overall and ball skills, and poor-to-good for locomotor subscale. Higher intra-rater reliability was achieved by the expert raters and novice rater with physical education background compared to novice raters. However, the inter-rater reliability was more variable in all the raters regardless of their experience or background. No significant differences in reliability were found when comparing live and video assessments. For clinical practice, it would be recommended that raters reach an agreement before the assessment to avoid subjective interpretations that might distort the results.

Physical activity and motor competence (MC) have been considered to be closely related and prevent childhood obesity. The aim of the study was two-fold: to examine MC measured with two different tools in relation to individual, family, and environmental correlates and to investigate gender differences in MC. The Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition (TGMD-3) was administered to three- to seven-year-old children (n = 945), while the K&ouml, rperkoordinationstest f&uuml, r Kinder (KTK) was also used for five- to seven-year-old children (n = 444). The parent questionnaire (n = 936) included questions about individual (e.g., participation in organized sports), family (e.g., parents&rsquo, education level), and environmental (e.g., access to sports facilities) correlates. The children&rsquo, s temperament was assessed using the Colorado Childhood Temperament Inventory (CCTI) questionnaire. Data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance and linear mixed-effects regression models. The regression models explained 57% and 38% of the variance in TGMD-3 and KTK, respectively. Individual correlates, including older age, more frequent participation in sports, and specific temperament traits of activity and attention span-persistence, were the strongest predictors for better MC. Small gender differences were found in both assessment tools, albeit in a different manner. In conclusion, socioecological correlates of MC in young children are multidimensional, and individual correlates appear to be the most important predictors of MC. Importantly, the correlates can differ according to the MC assessment tools.

Physical activity and motor competence (MC) have been considered to be closely related and prevent childhood obesity. The aim of the study was two-fold: to examine MC measured with two different tools in relation to individual, family, and environmental correlates and to investigate gender differences in MC. The Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition (TGMD-3) was administered to three- to seven-year-old children (n = 945), while the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK) was also used for five- to seven-year-old children (n = 444). The parent questionnaire (n = 936) included questions about individual (e.g., participation in organized sports), family (e.g., parents’ education level), and environmental (e.g., access to sports facilities) correlates. The children’s temperament was assessed using the Colorado Childhood Temperament Inventory (CCTI) questionnaire. Data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance and linear mixed-effects regression models. The regression models explained 57% and 38% of the variance in TGMD-3 and KTK, respectively. Individual correlates, including older age, more frequent participation in sports, and specific temperament traits of activity and attention span-persistence, were the strongest predictors for better MC. Small gender differences were found in both assessment tools, albeit in a different manner. In conclusion, socioecological correlates of MC in young children are multidimensional, and individual correlates appear to be the most important predictors of MC. Importantly, the correlates can differ according to the MC assessment tools.

Fundamental movement skills are the essential abilities that a person needs to be able to move, stabilize, and control body and objects (Cools et al., 2009). Good fundamental movement skills in childhood are associated with several health benefits (Cattuzzo et al, 2016). Measuring fundamental movement skills is crucial for obtaining valuable information on the current state of children’s skill proficiency and it enables early detection of motor delays or motor disorders. Known relationships with other assessment instruments increase the validity and reliability of the fundamental movement skills assessment and is vital for the selection of suitable instrument for measuring children’s skill proficiency. (Bardid et al., 2016.) The aim of this master’s thesis was to compare the test results of the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder-test (KTK-test) and the Test of Gross Motor Development 3rd edition (TGMD-3) and to examine if they give a similar description of a child’s fundamental movement skills. The KTK-test measures fundamental movement skills through four tasks involving balancing skills and body coordination while the TGMD-3 focuses on locomotor and object control skills and includes 13 different tasks. The data of this thesis was obtained from the Skilled Kids-study and included 686 Finnish children aged five to seven years. In the results, means were compared with independent samples t-test and one-way analysis of variance. The association and relationship between the KTK-test and the TGMD-3 were analyzed with Pearson correlation coefficients and crosstabulations. Cohen’s kappa coefficient was used to measure the interrater reliability of the crosstabulations. The results showed a statistically significant (p= 0,001) difference between boys and girls in the mean scores of the TGMD-3. Girls scored higher in locomotor tasks whereas boys outperformed girls in locomotor tasks and in total performance. Statistically significant moderate level of correlation was found between KTK Total score and TGMD-3 Total score (r= ,574, p< 0,001), KTK Hopping for height and TGMD-3 Total score (r= ,530, p< 0,001) , KTK Hopping for height and TGMD-3 Locomotor subscale (r= ,511, p< 0,001) , and KTK Total score and TGMD-3 Locomotor subscale (r= ,504, p< 0,001). Over half of the children in the lowest and highest quartile in the KTK-test were likewise categorized according to the TGMD-3. The results of this master’s thesis showed a moderate association between the KTK-test and the TGMD-3 and indicated that these two tests give somewhat similar description of a child’s fundamental movement skills although they measure different parts of them. Results underline the notion that a child’s motor competence assessment should not be a result of a single assessment instrument. Instead, it should be a combination of instruments that are known to be reliable, valid and support each other.

Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are the basic building blocks of more advanced, complex movements required to participate in physical activity. This study examined FMS proficiency across the full range of Irish primary school children (n = 2098, 47% girls, age range 5–12 years). Participants were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development, 3rd edition (TGMD-3), Victorian Fundamental Movement skills manual, and the balance subtest from the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency 2 (BOT-2). Independent sample t-tests and a one way between groups ANOVA with planned comparisons were used analyse sex and age differences. Mastery or near mastery of skills ranged from 16% for overhand throw, to 75.3% for run. Girls scored significantly higher than boys in the locomotor and balance subtests with the boys outperforming the girls in object control skills. Improvements in ability can be seen over time (F(8,1968) = 70.18, p < 0.001), with significant increases in FMS proficiency seen up to the age of 10, after which proficiency begins to decline. The findings demonstrate the low levels of FMS proficiency amongst Irish primary school children, the differences between sex that exist, and highlights the need for more programmes that focus on developing these FMS at an early age.

We investigated child, family, and environmental factors associated with young children’s perceptions of locomotor (LM) and object control (OC) skills. The participants comprised 472 children (6.22 ± 0.63) and their parents. The children were assessed for their perception of motor competence in LM and OC skills (using the pictorial scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for young children), and actual motor competence (Test of Gross Motor Development 3rd edition and Körperkoordinationstest Für Kinder). Anthropometrics were calculated using the children’s body mass index standard deviation scores. A parent questionnaire included questions about child factors (sex, child’s independent walking age, time spent sedentary and outdoors, participation in organized sport activities, and access to electronic devices), family factors (parent educational level, physical activity frequency, and sedentary behavior), and environmental factors (access to sport facilities). Variance analysis sought to identify age‐related differences, and a linear regression model examined correlates of children’s perception of LM and OC skills. The children’s movement skill perceptions were found to be generally high. Four factors explained 5.7% of the variance in perceptions of LM skills and 7.5% of the variance in perceptions of OC skills. Two factors, lower age and higher actual motor competence, explained most of the children’s skill perceptions. Access to electronic devices (less) and Body mass index (BMI) (higher) were associated with perceptions of LM skills. Participation in organized sport activities (higher) and parental education (lower) were associated with perceptions of OC skills. When promoting children’s physical activity and motor competence, perceptions of motor competence are an important consideration. peerReviewed

This study evaluated whether the Test of Gross Motor Development 3 (TGMD-3) is a reliable tool to compare children with and without mental and behavioral disorders across gross motor skill domains. A total of 1,075 children (aged 3-11 years), 98 with mental and behavioral disorders and 977 without (typically developing), were included in the analyses. The TGMD-3 evaluates fundamental gross motor skills of children across two domains: locomotor skills and ball skills. Two independent testers simultaneously observed children's performances (agreement over 95%). Each child completed one practice and then two formal trials. Scores were recorded only during the two formal trials. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis tested the assumption of TGMD-3 measurement invariance across disability groups. According to the magnitude of changes in root mean square error of approximation and comparative fit index between nested models, the assumption of measurement invariance across groups was valid. Loadings of the manifest indicators on locomotor and ball skills were significant (p < .001) in both groups. Item response theory analysis showed good reliability results across locomotor and the ball skills full latent traits. The present study confirmed the factorial structure of TGMD-3 and demonstrated its feasibility across normally developing children and children with mental and behavioral disorders. These findings provide new opportunities for understanding the effect of specific intervention strategies on this population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Marttila, J. & Suominen, G. 2017. Kehitysvammaisuuden yhteys lapsen motorisiin perustai-toihin. Liikuntatieteellinen tiedekunta, Jyväskylän yliopisto, liikuntapedagogiikan pro gradu -tutkielma, 84 s., 6 liitettä. Tutkielman tarkoituksena oli selvittää Test of Gross Motor Development-3 (TGMD-3)-testillä, millaiset ovat Jyvässeudun 7−10-vuotiaiden lievästi tai keskivaikeasti kehitysvammaisten lasten motoriset perustaidot. Tutkielmassa selvitettiin miten kehitysvammaisten lasten tulokset eroavat vammattomien lasten tuloksista iän ja sukupuolen mukaan. Tutkielma sisältää myös tutkimuspäiväkirjasta koottuja havaintoja kehitysvammaisten lasten testaamisesta. Pro gradu -tutkielman liitteeksi tuotettiin erityisopettajien käyttöön tarkoitettu motori-sia perustaitoharjoitteita sisältävä liikunnanopetuksen tukimateriaali. Tutkielman kohdejoukko tavoitettiin Jyvässeudun peruskoulujen yksilöllisen opetuksen pienryhmistä (YPR). Tutkimukseen osallistui yhteensä 31 lasta (12 tyttöä ja 19 poikaa) kahdeksasta eri koulusta. Lasten keski-ikä oli 8 vuotta ja 6 kuukautta. Aineisto kerättiin ja taltioitiin loka-marraskuun 2015 välisenä aikana. Analysoitavaa aineistoa oli editoinnin jälkeen 832 videoklippiä (5-10sek.). Tutkielman toiseen tutkimuskysymykseen, eli miten kehitysvam-maisten lasten tulokset eroavat iän ja sukupuolen mukaan vammattomien lasten tuloksista, haettiin vastauksia vastinparivertailun kautta. Aineisto koostui kehitysvammaisista lapsista (n=24), jotka olivat suorittaneet TGMD-3 -testin kokonaan saaden tuloksen kaikista testin osa-alueista. Heille etsittiin professori Pauli Rintalan aiemmin keräämästä vammattomien lasten aineistosta saman ikäinen ja samaa sukupuolta oleva vastinpari. Molemmat aineistot analysoitiin SPSS Statistics 22.0 ohjelmalla ja niiden tilastollisessa analysoinnissa käytettiin Mann-Whitneyn U-testiä. Tulosten mukaan kehitysvammaisten lasten liikkumis- ja välineen käsittelytaidot vaihtelevat yksilöiden välillä erittäin paljon. Yksittäisistä taidoista parhaimmat pisteet saavutettiin juoksusta ja heikoimmat pallon pomputuksesta. Eniten hajontaa kehitysvammaisten lasten tuloksissa esiintyi kahden käden mailasivulyönnissä. Sukupuolella ei tässä tutkimuksessa havaittu olevan tilastollisesti merkitsevää yhteyttä kehitysvammaisten lasten motorisiin perustaitoi-hin. Vastinparivertailu osoitti vammattomien lasten saavuttavan keskiarvojen tarkastelussa 59 % kehitysvammaisia lapsia paremmat pisteet TGMD-3-testissä. Tulos oli tilastollisesti merkitsevä kaikissa ikäluokissa, poikkeuksena 10-11-vuotiaat. Pallon pomputus osoittautui haasteellisimmaksi taidoksi riippumatta lapsen sukupuolesta, iästä tai motorisesta kehityksestä. Tutkimuspäiväkirjan havaintojen perusteella kehitysvammaisten lasten testaaminen vaatii testaajalta empaattista ja kannustavaa otetta, selkeää kommunikointia ja mahdollisten apuvä-lineiden käyttöä vuorovaikutuksen tukena. Testitilanteessa tulee pyrkiä kiireettömään ilmapiiriin sekä minimoimaan häiriötekijät ja ylimääräiset virikkeet. Tuloksia voidaan hyödyntää liikunnanopetuksen suuntaamisessa ja lapsen toimintakyvyn paremmassa tukemisessa. Jatkotutkimusehdotuksena voisi olla interventio-tutkimus, jossa selvitettäisiin taitojen kehittymistä harjoittelujakson aikana. Asiasanat: lapset, kehitysvammaisuus, motoriset perustaidot, liikkumistaidot, välineenkäsittelytaidot, TGMD-3 Marttila, J. & Suominen, G. 2017. Motor skills in children with intellectual disabilities. Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Master's thesis, 84 pp., 6 appendices. The first purpose of the study was to describe motor skill level of Finnish children with mild or moderate intellectual disability (ID). The second purpose was to explore the differences in fundamental motor skills between children with and without ID. The study also describes qualitative observations when using Test of Gross Motor Development 3rd edition (TGMD-3). Furthermore, the study is also enclosed with a training package of fundamental motor skills for teachers. The participants of the study were 31 children aged 7–10-years (12 girls, 19 boys; M age = 8,5 yrs). Data were collected in autumn 2015 from eight primary schools in Middle-Finland using a TGMD-3. TGMD-3 was administered to all children individually by the authors. TGMD-3 assesses gross motor functioning by measuring children’s performances on two subtests of gross motor development, namely Locomotor skills and Ball skills. The differences were calculated by Mann-Whitney U-test in SPSS Statistics 22.0 -program. Twenty-four children (9 girls, 15 boys; M age = 8,75 yrs), with ID were matched according to age and gender with typically developing children. Children with ID represented all children with ID (total 31) who were able to perform the test. The results revealed that there is a vast variability within children with ID in their motor skills, most of it in two-hand strike. The most successful children with ID were in run and the least successful in dribbling the ball. There were no gender differences in locomotor or ball skill performances. Children with ID (total score 49 out of 100) differed statistically significantly in three of four age categories from typically developing children (total score 78 out of 100) who achieved 59 % better total score than those with ID. The difference was very similar in both Locomotor and Ball skill subtests. Dribbling the ball was the most challenging gross motor skill for everyone regardless of gender, age category or developmental stage. As a conclusion, poor motor skill performances of individuals with ID as assessed in this study are remarkable compared to children without ID. The lack of sufficient motor skills of individuals with ID may in the future be another hindrance for them to participate in physical activities and stay active enough for optimal health. Based on the qualitative observations, when testing children with ID the tester´s empathic and motivating approach, clear communication, and the use of possible tools to support interaction during the test protocol is required. In the test situation relaxed atmosphere and avoidance of distractions are striven. Key words: children, intellectual disability, fundamental motor skills, locomotor skills, object control skills, TGMD-3

Tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli selvittää Test of Gross Motor Development 3-testistön (TGMD-3) luotettavuutta vertaamalla eri tutkijoiden tekemiä arviointeja ja niiden yhtenevyyttä. Tutkimus oli osa professori Pauli Rintalan johtamaa TGMD-3-projektia, jonka aineisto on kerätty Keski-Suomen alueen alakouluista vuoden 2014 aikana. Tutkimukseen osallistui 43 7–10-vuotiasta lasta. Lasten liikkumis- ja käsittelytaitoja mitattiin TGMD-3-testistöllä (Ulrich 2013), joka sisältää yhteensä 13 taitotestiä, joista 6 mittasi liikkumistaitoja ja 7 käsittelytaitoja. Liikkumistaitoja testaavat tehtävät olivat juoksu, laukka eteenpäin, konkkaus, vuorohyppely, tasaponnistus eteen ja sivulaukka. Käsittelytaitotehtäviä olivat kahden käden mailasivulyönti, yhden käden kämmenlyönti, pallon pompotus, kahden käden kiinniotto, potku, yliolanheitto ja aliolanheitto. (Ulrich 2013.) Kaikki testisuoritukset videoitiin ja tutkijat pisteyttivät suoritukset myöhemmin videoiden perusteella. Tutkimuksessa on verrattu neljän tutkijan, kahden kokeneen ja kahden kokemattoman, arviointeja toisiinsa muodostamalla yhteensä viisi tutkijaparia. Tutkijaparien välisiä arviointeja tarkasteltiin ristiintaulukoinnilla määritettyjen yhtenevyysprosenttien ja Cohenin kappa-arvojen avulla testiosioiden, taitojen ja kriteerien osalta. Tulokset osoittavat, että kaikkien tutkijaparien välisten arviointien yhtenevyys oli yli 80 %. Tutkijoiden arviointien yhtenevyys oli keskimäärin 84,5 %, mikä on suurempi kuin testistön kehittäjien asettama raja-arvo luotettavien arviointien määrittämiseksi (Webster 2015). Yhtenevyysprosentit olivat luotettavuusrajan yläpuolella myös tarkasteltaessa yhtenevyyksiä testiosioiden eli liikkumis- ja käsittelytaitojen tarkkuudella. Liikkumistaidoissa yhtenevyys oli jokaisen tutkijaparin kohdalla korkeampi kuin käsittelytaidoissa. Yksittäisten taitojen osalta yhtenevyysprosentti oli alle 80 % tutkijaparista riippuen muutamassa taidossa. Kokemattomien tutkijoiden 1 ja 2 väliset yhtenevyydet olivat yksittäisten taitojen osalta yliolanheittoa lukuun ottamatta yli 80,0 %. Verrattaessa kokeneita tutkijoita 3 ja 4 kokemattomiin tutkijoihin 1 ja 2, tutkijoiden 1 ja 3 arviointien välillä luotettavuusrajan alapuolelle jäi konkkaus, tasaponnistus, kahden käden lyönti ja yliolanheitto. Tutkijoiden 2 ja 3 välillä arviointien yhtenevyydessä luotettavuusrajan alapuolelle jäi konkkaus, kahden käden lyönti, potku ja yliolanheitto. Tutkijoiden 1 ja 4 arviointien välillä yhtenevyydeltään alle 80 % oli laukka ja tutkijoiden 2 ja 4 arviointien välillä laukka, pomputus ja potku. Kahden tutkijaparin (1 & 3 ja 2 & 3) kohdalla kolme neljästä yhtenevyydeltään heikommasta taidosta oli samoja: konkkaus, kahden käden lyönti ja yliolanheitto. Näiden taitojen yksittäisten kriteerien arviointien yhtenevyysprosenttien ja kappa-arvojen tarkastelu osoitti, että joidenkin kriteerien toteutumista oli vaikeaa arvioida. Tutkimuksessa havaittiin hyvin samankaltaisia ongelmia kuin aiemmissa TGMD-tutkimuksissa; taitojen arvioimista hankaloittavat sellaiset kriteerit, jotka voivat toteutua lapsen suorituksessa osittain. Kriteerien tulisi siis olla spesifimpejä ja selkeämpiä, milloin ne jättäisivät vähemmän sijaa tulkitsemiselle. The purpose of this study was to examine interrater reliability in the Test of Gross Motor Development 3 (TGMD-3) by comparing assessments made by various observers. The study was a part of TGMD-3 project lead by professor Pauli Rintala. The data was collected from primary schools in Middle Finland during the year of 2014. There were 43 7–10 year old children participating in this study. Fundamental movement skills were tested by TGMD-3 (Ulrich 2013) which includes a total of 13 skills. Six of them were locomotor skills and seven of them were object-control skills (also called ball skills). Locomotor skills included run, gallop, hop, skip, horizontal jump and slide. Ball skills included two-hand strike, one-hand forehand strike, one-hand stationary dribble, two-hand catch, kick stationary ball, overhand throw and underhand throw. (Ulrich 2013.) All the performances were videotaped and assessed later by the researchers. In this study, four researchers, two experts and two inexperienced assessors in scoring were compared to each other. To do this, five pairs were created among the researchers. The consistency of assessments of each pair was measured using crosstabs and Cohen’s kappa according to subtests (locomo-tor/ball skills), individual skills and the components of skills. The results show that consistency of assessments between all pairs of researchers was more than 80 %. The researchers' consistency of assessments was an average of 84,5 % which is over the reliability limit set by developers of TGMD-3 (Webster 2015). The percentage was also above the reliability limit when examining the results in locomotor skills and ball skills. The consistency was higher in locomotor skills than ball skills on each pair of researchers. Among the individual skills, consistency was mainly over 80 %. Between the researchers 1 and 2 (both inexperienced) the consistency was over 80,0 % in all but overhand throw skill. Comparing researchers 1 and 2 to researchers 3 and 4 (both experts), there were four skills below 80 % consistency. Between researchers 1 and 3 the skills were hop, horizontal jump, two-hand strike and overhand throw. Between researcher 2 and 3 the skills were hop, two-hand strike, kick stationary ball and overhand throw. Between researcher 1 and 4 gallop was the only skill, and between researcher 2 and 4 gallop, stationary dribble and kick stationary ball were below 80 % consistency. Comparing the two pairs of researchers (1 & 3 and 2 & 3), three out of four skills with the lowest consistency were the same: hop, two-hand strike and overhand throw. After closer examining of consistency percentages and Cohen’s kappa of these three skills, there appeared to be some components which were difficult to score. In this study, very similar problems as in previous TGMD-studies were discovered; the assessment of a component is difficult if there is more than one criterion in a component that must appear at the same time. According to this study, it would be better if the components in TGMD-3 were more specific.