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Plant-parasitic nematodes pose a significant threat to economically important crops, causing annual losses amounting to billions of dollars. Accurate identification of these pathogens is crucial for the implementation of effective management strategies. Various methods are available for nematode species identification; however, some rely on trained taxonomists (morphological methods), specific stages of the nematode (isoenzyme electrophoresis and perineal pattern analysis) or require costly equipment and reagents (conventional or real-time polymerase chain reaction). Loop-mediated isothermal amplification is a molecular technique with the potential to offer a precise, simple, and relatively affordable diagnosis of nematode species. Although widely utilized in microbiology, human and veterinary medicine, its application in plant nematology remains relatively unexplored. This article presents a comprehensive review of the loop-mediated isothermal amplification technique, existing protocols for plant-parasitic nematode diagnosis, and the future prospects for harnessing this method in the field of plant nematology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article provides a comprehensive overview of the life and accomplishments of Dr. Kattungal Subramaniam Manilal, a highly respected botanist, taxonomist, and professor in India. It highlights his research on the plant wealth of the Malabar Coast, his teaching and administrative experience at the University of Calicut, and his numerous awards and fellowships. The article also discusses his significant contributions to the field of botany, including his research on Ayurvedic plants, biodiversity studies in Kerala, and his work on orchids and floral morphology. Dr. Manilal's leadership and establishment of the Indian Association for Angiosperm Taxonomy are also emphasized. The text concludes with a list of his publications and further reading suggestions for interested researchers. [Extracted from the article]

The marine hydroids (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa) of south-eastern Australia are reviewed and commonly-encountered species are described and illustrated. A brief introduction to hydroid morphology, ecology and study methods is also provided, along with an account of early investigations into hydroids and a brief history of Australian hydroid studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zooplankton are key ecological components of the marine food web. Currently, laboratory-based methods of zooplankton identification are manual, time-consuming, prone to human error and require expert taxonomists. Therefore, alternative methods are needed. In this study, we describe, implement and compare the performance of six state-of-the-art single-stage deep learning models for automated zooplankton identification. The highest prediction accuracy achieved is 99.50%. The fastest detection speed is 285 images per second, making the models suitable for real-time zooplankton classification. We validate the predictions of the generated models on unseen images. The results demonstrate the capabilities of the latest deep learning models in zooplankton identification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Taxonomic data are a scientific common. Unlike nomenclature, which has strong governance institutions, there are currently no generally accepted governance institutions for the compilation of taxonomic data into an accepted global list. This gap results in challenges for conservation, ecological research, policymaking, international trade, and other areas of scientific and societal importance. Consensus on a global list and its management requires effective governance and standards, including agreed mechanisms for choosing among competing taxonomies and partial lists. However, governance frameworks are currently lacking, and a call for governance in 2017 generated critical responses. Any governance system to which compliance is voluntary requires a high level of legitimacy and credibility among those by and for whom it is created. Legitimacy and credibility, in turn, require adequate and credible consultation. Here, we report on the results of a global survey of taxonomists, scientists from other disciplines, and users of taxonomy designed to assess views and test ideas for a new system of taxonomic list governance. We found a surprisingly high degree of agreement on the need for a global list of accepted species and their names, and consistent views on what such a list should provide to users and how it should be governed. The survey suggests that consensus on a mechanism to create, manage, and govern a single widely accepted list of all the world's species is achievable. This finding was unexpected given past controversies about the merits of list governance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Anthropocene, scientists have an imperative to prioritize the sharing of scientific knowledge as a fundamental responsibility in fostering collective action. Scientific names are essential in communicating biodiversity, and to maximize their impact, they need to be consistently labeled across all organisms and made accessible to diverse audiences. In our study, we examined the etymological and temporal patterns in naming practices of rotifers and microcrustaceans (cladocerans and copepods). By analyzing a dataset comprising 992 species present in Brazil, but described worldwide since the eighteenth century, we identified various factors influencing specific epithets, including morphology, ecology, behavior, geography, and cultural references, as well as names honoring notable individuals. Our findings revealed that while morphology was the primary basis for etymology (62.1%) in naming rotifers, cladocerans, and copepods, its relative importance has decreased over time. We observed a significant increase in etymologies related to geography and the recognition of influential scientists in the field. Furthermore, our study unveiled a gender bias, with male scientists being more frequently honored with species names (86.4%). In addition to acknowledging the contributions made by taxonomists studying these groups, our study offers valuable insights intended to stimulate reflections on the significance of naming practices in biodiversity research and communication, in line with current social-ecological needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is a privilege to recognize a new species and immortalize it with a name. Taxonomists may use etymologies recalling the sampling locality, habitat, species morphology, people (actor, writer, singer, politician, scientist), culture (customs, beliefs), fictional characters (gods, demons, cartoons), brands, ancient names, and others. Naming a species is a creative act that allows scientists to express their love for nature. By drawing on personal and cultural associations, species names are often imbued with far greater meaning than one might initially assume. Unconventional names for species can be an effective way to capture the imagination of the public and make the species memorable. In other words, species names can be both meaningful and whimsical. The central focus of this study was to pinpoint species in the subfamily Microgastrinae that share the same specific epithet that often creates confusion regarding which species is being referred to. The findings showed that 153 specific epithets were repeated representing 340 species in 52 genera, while the remaining 2,823 species have unique epithets. Three of the five categories proposed accommodate the majority of the etymologies: people (42%), morphology (27%), and geography (15%) whereas the categories of other (9%) and biology (7%) achieve the least representation. Approximately 95% of the same specific epithets had a single clear meaning, while for the remaining 5%, it was not possible to trace etymology. The study revealed that the average length of specific epithets was 9.01 letters, the longest contains 18 (eliethcantillanoae) while the shortest four (eros and erro). Additionally, most identical specific epithets were repeated two times (85.25% of the occurrences), although three (12.82%), five, six, and even nine (each one with 0.64%) repetitions were also found. Finally, a list of recommendations for taxonomists when faced with the task of naming a new species is provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In the present era of scientific and technological advancements, the use of smartphones among people has witnessed a large-scale progression. The camera serves as an important tool on smartphones, and the quality of the built-in camera varies with megapixels. The quality of photography and videography can be enhanced by employing macro lenses that can provide precise and high-quality photographs for the documentation and monitoring of macroorganisms, particularly insects. We used a smartphone-macro lens setup (SPMLS), comprising a Redmi Note 8 Pro and Skyvik Signi-20 mm lens, along with Snapseed for image processing. The SPMLS, costing USD 217, was employed in the Hirpora Wildlife Sanctuary, Kashmir, during May to October 2021 for insect diversity documentation. The aim of this study is to introduce and demonstrate the utility of SPMLS as an affordable and portable photography solution for enhancing image quality in biodiversity documentation, making it accessible to a wide range of users. Results: In this study, we report a device that uses a smartphone and macro lens (SPMLS), which is a portable and low-cost photography gear for researchers, photographers, citizen enthusiasts, and the general public who are not able to buy high-end and costly photography equipment for field-based biodiversity studies. The utilization of SPMLS has significantly augmented the image resolution and pixel density, thereby substantially enhancing the overall photographic quality, demonstrating its substantial scientific utility. Conclusions: The SPMLS device presented in this study can be useful for researchers, scientists, students, citizen enthusiasts, and common people that are engaged in the biodiversity monitoring and conservation of animal and plant species across the globe. In addition, the post-photography part of this paper provides users with an outlook on image editing, processing, uploading, and marketing of photographs on different platforms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When producing species classifications, taxonomists are often confronted with gray-area cases. For example, because of incipient or shallow divergence, it can be scientifically valid both to split groups of organisms into separate species and to lump them together into one species. It has been claimed that, in such cases, the ranking decision is, in part, subjective and may differ between taxonomists because of differences in their conceptions of species or even in conservation values. In the present article, we use a vignette study to empirically test this claim and to explore the drivers of taxonomic decision-making in gray-area cases. For three fictional taxonomic scenarios, we asked the opinion of a sample of taxonomists on one of slightly different versions of an abstract containing a decision on species status. The cases were explicitly designed to represent gray-area cases, and the differences between versions related to potential drivers of decisions, such as information on conservation status, different kinds of additional evidence, and information on the presence or absence of gene flow. In general, our results suggest that taxonomists tend to disagree at least moderately about species-ranking decisions in gray-area cases even when they are presented with the same data. We did not find evidence that species concepts or conservation values are strong drivers of taxonomic disagreement. Instead, operational concerns, such as the presence or absence of different kinds of data, seemed to be more important. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While evidence of insect pollinator declines accumulates, little is known about the pollinator communities that are most vulnerable to population fluctuations and may require conservation actions. Among the main reasons for this lack of knowledge about the status and trends of native pollinators are the time, cost, and expertise required to collect and identify wild insect pollinators (bees, more specifically). Here, we discuss how leveraging the complementarity of community science and taxonomist expertise can help overcome these challenges and provide perspective and insights from launching the large‐scale monitoring program Abeilles citoyennes. The overall objective of this community science project is to monitor wild bee (Apoidea) and hover fly (Syrphidae) diversity in the province of Quebec, Canada, and study the effects of landscape composition on their communities. From 2019 to 2021, 131 volunteers collected insects at 161 sites across the province. A total of 13,558 bees and 2,486 hover flies were collected and identified to species. The project protocol and potential data uses are presented, along with a discussion of the benefits and challenges of using an expert‐assisted community science approach for pollinator monitoring and opportunities for improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The science of taxonomy, albeit being fundamental for all organismic research, has been underfunded and undervalued for about two generations. We analyze how this could happen, particularly in times of a biodiversity crisis, when we have increased awareness amongst the population and decision makers that knowledge about species we share the planet with is indispensable for finding solutions. We identify five major issues: the habit of holding taxonomy in low esteem; the focus on inappropriate publication metrics in evaluating scientific output; the excessive focus on innovative technology in evaluating scientific relevance; shifting priorities in natural history museums away from their traditional strengths; and changing attitudes towards specimen collecting and increasing legislation regulating collecting and international exchange of specimens. To transform taxonomy into a thriving science again, we urgently suggest significantly increasing baseline funding for permanent positions in taxonomy, particularly in natural history museums; reviving taxonomic research and teaching in universities at the tenured professor level; strongly increasing soft money for integrative taxonomy projects; refraining using journal-based metrics for evaluating individual researchers and scientific output and instead focusing on quality; installing governmental support for open access publishing; focusing digitizing efforts to the most useful parts of collections, freeing resources for improving data quality by improving identifications; requiring natural history museums to focus on collection-based research; and ending the trend of prohibitive legislation towards scientific collecting and international exchange of taxonomic specimens, and instead building legal frameworks supportive of biodiversity research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate species delimitation based on an integrative approach is indispensable for biodiversity evaluation. Accordingly, species that were formerly only described morphologically often need to be split into several evolutionary independent units. However, taxonomic actions often lag behind, even when the required data are already available. As a result, invalid species names are carried over the years, with negative implications on ecology, biogeography, and conservation; we designate these entities as 'shadow species'. This is particularly common in protists, due to the lack of specialized taxonomists and the difficulties of working with microscopic organisms. Here, we resolve the case of the testate amoeba shadow species Cyphoderia ampulla (Rhizaria: Cercozoa: Euglyphida: Cyphoderiidae), a known polyphyletic taxon. Purposely, we integrated the current ecological, genetic, and morphological data on the family Cyphoderiidae with its described evolutionary history. Subsequently, we took the required taxonomic actions to resolve the taxonomy of the family, erecting four new genera (Psammoderia gen nov. Knarr gen. nov. Ichthyosquama gen. nov. and Oleiformis gen. nov.), emending Cyphoderia and describing four new species (Ichthyosquama sanabriensis sp. nov. , Ichthyosquama catoirensis sp. nov. , Ichthyosquama loricaria sp. nov. , and Oleiformis carmelae sp. nov.). Finally, we discuss the extension and relevance of the 'shadow species' issue in eukaryotic taxa, and differentiate it from species complex concept. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing complexity and specialisation of modern sciences has led to increasingly collaborative publications, as well as the involvement of commercial services. Modern integrative taxonomy likewise depends on many lines of evidence and is increasingly complex, but the trend of collaboration lags and various attempts at 'turbo taxonomy' have been unsatisfactory. We are developing a taxonomic service in the Senckenberg Ocean Species Alliance to provide fundamental data for new species descriptions. This will also function as a hub to connect a global network of taxonomists, assembling an alliance of scientists working on potential new species to tackle both the extinction and inclusion crises we face today. The current rate of new species descriptions is simply too slow; the discipline is often dismissed as old fashioned, and there is a crisis level need for taxonomic descriptions to come to grips with the scale of Anthropocene biodiversity loss. Here, we envision how the process of describing and naming species would benefit from a service supporting the acquisition of descriptive data. Also see the video abstract here: https://youtu.be/E8q3KJor_F8 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We provide an overview of the World Amphipoda Database (WAD), a global species database that is part of the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS). Launched in 2013, the database contains entries for over 10,500 accepted species names. Edited currently by 31 amphipod taxonomists, following WoRMS priorities, the WAD has at least one editor per major group. All accepted species are checked by the editors, as is the authorship available for all of the names. The higher classification is documented for every species and a type species is recorded for every genus name. This constitutes five of the 13 priorities for completion, set by WoRMS. In 2015, five LifeWatch grants were allocated for WAD activities. These included a general training workshop in 2016, together with data input for the superfamily Lysianassoidea and for a number of non-marine groups. Philanthropy grants in 2019 and 2021 covered more important gaps across the whole group. Further work remains to complete the linking of unaccepted names, original descriptions, and environmental information. Once these tasks are completed, the database will be considered complete for 8 of the 13 priorities, and efforts will continue to input new taxa annually and focus on the remaining priorities, particularly the input of type localities. We give an overview of the current status of the order Amphipoda, providing counts of the number of genera and species within each family belonging to the six suborders currently recognized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

James K. Lowry (1942-2021) was one of the most prolific crustacean taxonomists of the late 20th through early 21st century, authoring some 214 publications over a period of some 55 years in which he named some 800 new taxa including 5 suborders, 62 families, 129 genera, and 548 species of primarily amphipod crustaceans. The present work provides a complete list of Jim Lowry's scientific publications along with the new taxa that he described therein. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Proper elements represent a dynamical fingerprint of an object's inherent state and have been used by small-body taxonomists in characterizing asteroid families. Being linked to the underlying dynamical structure of orbits, Celletti, Pucacco, and Vartolomei have recently adopted these innate orbital parameters for the association of debris from breakup or collision into its parent satellite. Building from this rich astronomical heritage and recent foundations, we introduce an unsupervised learning method—density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise (DBSCAN)—to determine clusters of orbital debris in the space of proper elements. Data is taken from the space-object catalog of trackable Earth-orbiting objects in the form of two-line element sets. Proper elements for debris fragments in low-Earth orbit are computed using an ad hoc numerical scheme, akin to the state-of-the-art Fourier-series-based synthetic method for the asteroid domain. Given the heuristic nature of classical DBSCAN, we investigate the use of neural networks, trained on known families, to augment DBSCAN into a classification problem and apply it to analyst objects of unknown origin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the risks associated with relying solely on images for documenting new species records, rediscoveries, taxonomic descriptions, and distribution expansions. We highlight concerns regarding image authenticity, especially in cases where images may be altered, adulterated, or AI (artificial intelligence)-generated, potentially leading to inaccuracies in biodiversity documentation. To illustrate the evolving challenges, we conducted an experiment with 621 participants who assessed nine AI-generated images. Surprisingly, six were deemed authentic, while three raised doubts, highlighting the difficulty in discerning AI-generated content. Our main message emphasizes the critical role of trust in biodiversity documentation, particularly for taxonomy and conservation, and how eroded trust can hinder conservation efforts. Improved communication and collaboration between taxonomists and conservationists are needed, emphasizing scientific integrity. We urge a reevaluation of journal policies concerning data validation, especially in articles relying on images as primary evidence, to preserve the credibility of scientific research amidst technological advancements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Repeated macrofungal explorations, followed by thorough examination of species through morphology and molecular phylogeny, have made it clear that European and American names of wild mushrooms were inadvertently misapplied quite often to Asian lookalikes by mycologists/taxonomists in the past. Therefore, in order to reveal this mushroom treasure, in recent years, taxonomical research on wild mushrooms has been intensified in Asian countries, including India, by undertaking a combined approach of morpho-taxonomy and multigene molecular phylogeny. Boletoid mushrooms (Boletaceae) are no exception. While working on boletoid mushrooms of the Indian Himalayas, authors recently came across six interesting species of boletoid mushrooms. In the present communication, four novel species, namely Leccinellum binderi, Cyanoboletus paurianus, Xerocomus uttarakhandae, and Xerocomellus himalayanus, are established based on morphology and molecular phylogenetic estimations. Moreover, Cyanoboletus macroporus and Xerocomus fraternus are also reported here for the first time in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subfamily Eumolpinae stands out as one of the most diverse in Coleoptera with almost 7000 species. Despite its richness, it is one of the least studied groups in the neotropics, costituting a true taxonomic disorder and a group whose characteristics are practically unknown in different aspects. In order to organize and build the base with which to generate interest and promote research on the group for Colombia, a list of the species recorded for the country is generated from all the existing bibliography. In total, Colombia has 231 species of eumolpines, 46% of them registered as endemic. The departments with the highest number of records are Cundinamarca, Antioquia, Tolima and Boyacá, which does not reflect the real distribution of the group and is a consequence of the lack of information at the national level, which leads to the fact that several records must be verified by reviewing entomological collections and field collections. At the taxonomic level, an in-depth treatment of the genera and species is necessary, as well as promoting the training of taxonomists and the development of tools that facilitate the study of the group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus is a special and crucial taxonomic rank compared with others above the species level, because a species has to be placed in a certain genus instead of any other higher ranks. With more and more new species being described, the placements of their generic position are sometimes incorrect due to the simple phylogenies resulting from inappropriate sampling. Here, we focus on the taxonomy of a small wood-inhabiting fungal genus Hyphodermella. With the most comprehensive sampling to date, the phylogenetic position of Hyphodermella within Phanerochaetaceae is rearranged by employing the same ITS and nLSU regions as in previous studies and also the ITS, nLSU, rpb1, rpb2 and tef1α regions. Three species are excluded from Hyphodermella: H. poroides is placed in a newly introduced monotypic genus Pseudohyphodermella, while H. aurantiaca and H. zixishanensis are transferred to Roseograndinia. Hyphodermella suiae is described as a new species from South China and Vietnam. Keys to eight species in Hyphodermella and five in Roseograndinia are provided. Beyond solving the taxonomic issue of Hyphodermella itself, the current study also aims to suggest that all fungal taxonomists especially beginners should keep in mind to sample as many comprehensive taxa as possible in phylogenetic analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Premise of research. Computer vision has the potential to become a transformative identification tool in biodiversity research and collections management, allowing high-throughput identification and removing the need for nonexpert end users to understand technical terminology. A major bottleneck for taxonomists is the generation of sufficient numbers of training images. Contemporary large-scale imaging projects of herbaria provide an increasing number of specimen photos, but whole-sheet images are not directly suitable for training image classification models targeted at individual taxonomically informative characters. Methodology. Here, we illustrate a time- and labor-efficient approach for generating training libraries for image classification from photos of herbarium sheets. It involves the annotation of specimen images with bounding boxes using open-source software and automated cropping of annotations with a custom script to produce the training library. We demonstrate the approach on the flower heads of a genus of Asteraceae comprising eight taxa, six species and two nontypus varieties. Pivotal results. After generating 816 training images from 33 specimen photos with a time investment of only ∼90 min, we trained an image classification model that achieved 98.2% precision and recall. Conclusions. The demonstrated approach allows taxonomists to use digitized herbarium specimens to produce training libraries for image classification models within hours. We expect that computer vision will increasingly become a part of taxonomic practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a secret pleasure in naming new species. Besides traditional etymologies recalling the sampling locality, habitat or morphology of the species, names may be tributes to some meaningful person, pop culture references and even exercises of enigmatography. Using a dataset of 48 464 spider etymologies, we tested the hypothesis that species names given by taxonomists are deeply influenced by their cultural background. Specifically, we asked whether naming practices change through space or have changed through time. In absolute terms, etymologies referring to morphology were the most frequently used. In relative terms, references to morphology peaked in 1850–1900 and then began to decline, with a parallel increase in etymologies dedicated to people and geography. We also observed a dramatic increase in etymologies referring to pop culture and other cultural aspects in 2000–2020, especially in Europe and the Americas. While such fashionable names often carry no biological information regarding the species itself, they help give visibility to taxonomy, a discipline currently facing a profound crisis in academia. Taxonomy is among the most unchanged disciplines across the last centuries in terms of tools, rules and writing style. Yet, our analysis suggests that taxonomists remain deeply influenced by their living time and space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Labeotropheus is a small genus of rock-dwelling haplochromine cichlid fishes endemic to Lake Malaŵi in the Great East African Rift Valley. As currently recognized, Labeotropheus contains five species: L. artatorostris, L. chlorosiglos, L. fuelleborni, L. simoneae, and L. trewavasae. Despite increased recent attention from taxonomists, there are still several undescribed species within this genus. Here, based upon morphological and meristic data, as well as differences in male nuptial color pattern, we describe six new species. Additionally, we update the type locality of L. simoneae. The descriptions of these new species are in line with current recommendations to better define and delimit the taxonomy of cichlids from Lake Malaŵi, which will hopefully lead to increased efforts to conserve these fishes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anatomical characteristics regenerant plantlet of Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L.) were observed to determine the difference of plantlet performance between Sigararutang and Maragogige grown in shooting and rooting medium. Transverse sections of the fresh roots, stems and leaves of three-month-old plantlets from somatic embryos were collected and used for the study. Sigararutang and Maragogipe as the plantlet materials were chosen based on the bean size and the origin. Stomata were microscopically observed on the abaxial leaf paradermal section. A conformity test to compare between plantlet and the parent plant was observed to perform genetic stability. Assessment of genetic stability was measured by using the sequence of trnL (UAA) region. The result showed that all the anatomical roots, stems and leaves of the Maragogipe plantlet have a greater number than Sigararutang (root diameter, cortex thickness, distance of long stele, distance of short stele, endodermis thickness, stem diameter, cortex thickness, maximum stele diameter, minimum stele diameter, epidermis thickness, diameter of stomatal closing, length of stomatal closing, total stomatal density, adaxial epidermis density, midrib thickness, adaxial epidermis thickness, abaxial epidermis thickness, diameter of the vascular bundles, lamina thickness), except of epidermis thickness, diameter of the vascular bundles, diameter of stomatal aperture, diameter of stomatal opening, length of stomatal opening and abaxial epidermis density. Taxonomists may be able to use these anatomic traits as supplementary proof in the determination of Arabica coffee. Molecular analysis showed that there were genetically identical organisms between the plantlet and the parent plant. It was indicated there was no somaclonal variation during somatic embryogenesis in the micropropagation of Arabica coffee. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Taxonomy is a science whose roots go back to the dawn of human curiosity. Its evergrowing body of knowledge, laid down in the biological classification, provides the framework within which every biologist operates. Taxonomists have always used the oldest scientific tools for their research — their natural capabilities of observation, gestalt perception, categorization, and classification — as well as the most advanced technologies of the day. Today, taxonomy is firmly anchored in evolutionary theory, spearheading on topics such as the species problem and biodiversity and its development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interdisciplinary sensitivity takes into account the epistemic upheaval of the Anthropocene. However, the still fragmented academic organization between nature and society counteracts intellectual progress. The paper explores the possibilities of enhancing collaboration between biology and sociology by providing an empirical reflection of common methodological grounds. Building on practice theory, pragmatism, science studies and sociocultural anthropology, I discuss current nature-society relationships through an ethnography of a taxonomist's laboratory, followed up by a biodiversity expedition in Papua New Guinea. I address analogical thinking as a device for interdisciplinary collaboration through four modes of fieldwork enrollment: Ontological, disciplinary, transdisciplinary and experimental. The paper concludes with two arguments: Firstly, fieldwork could engender new knowledge in between differing epistemic cultures and, secondly, an analogical fieldwork approach based on the interrelatedness of experience, trial and cooperation facilitates promising pathways for sustainable futures of inquiry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The systematics of the marine mollusc family Velutinidae has long been neglected by taxonomists, mainly because their often internal and fragile shells offer no morphological characters. Velutinids are usually undersampled owing to their cryptic mantle coloration on the solitary, social or colonial ascidians on which they feed and lay eggs. In this study, we address the worldwide diversity and phylogeny of Velutinidae based on the largest molecular dataset (313 specimens) to date, accounting for > 50% of the currently accepted genera, coupled with morphological and ecological data. Velutinids emerge as a diverse group, encompassing four independent subfamily-level lineages, two of which are newly described herein: Marseniopsinae subfam. nov. and Hainotinae subfam. nov. High diversity was found at genus and species levels, with two newly described genera (Variolipallium gen. nov. and Pacifica gen. nov.) and ≥ 86 species in the assayed dataset, 58 of which are new to science (67%). Velutinidae show a remarkable morphological plasticity in shell morphology, mantle extension and chromatic patterns. This variability is likely to be the result of different selective forces, including habitat, depth and trophic interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The taxonomic study of Great Amazon Reef System sponges yielded three Oceanapia -like (Phloeodictyidae, Haplosclerida) species of similar gross morphology, two preliminarily identified as O. bartschi and another as Coelocarteria (Poecilosclerida), due to the presence of common palmate isochelae. The remarkable overall similarity of all three species in gross morphology necessitated an integrative assessment of the phylogenetic affinities. A selection of haplosclerid and poecilosclerid sequences (18S and 28S rRNA) was gathered from Genbank and compared to sequences mapped to reference from metagenome of two Oceanapia -like species from the Amazon River mouth, one of which matched O. bartschi. Both Brazilian species clustered with Coelocarteria singaporensis (Singapore). These species nest in the Poecilosclerida, far from Oceanapia (sp. and isodictyiformis) and other haplosclerids (Amphimedon , Petrosia, Siphonodictyon and Xestospongia) but also far from the poecilosclerid Isodictya that is currently classified in the same family as Coelocarteria , the Isodictyidae. Specimens with chelae are named Coelocarteria alcoladoi sp. nov. herein, while those without chelae represent the other two species. One matched Inflatella bartschi (O. bartchi 's holotype, here re-examined), thereby supporting the transfer of this species to Coelocarteria. The other is proposed as C. amadoi sp. nov. and is the second known lipochelous species in this genus. The 28S phylogenies recovered Coelocarteria bartschi comb. nov. (formerly Oceanapia bartschi) in the Poecilosclerida clade that clustered with Coelocarteria spp., including the type species of this genus, C. singaporensis , with 100% support. Coelocarteria alcoladoi sp. nov., also without chelae, grouped in the same clade, thereby corroborating the classification in this genus. The clade composed of Coelocarteria spp. grouped with Cornulella sp., suggesting an affinity between these genera. Coelocarteria is currently situated within Isodictyidae and Cornulella in Acarnidae. Isodictya (Isodictyidae) grouped with Amphilectus (Esperiopsidae) with high support and is only distantly related to Coelocarteria. Acarnus (Acarnidae) grouped with Clathria , also with high support, far from Coelocarteria and Cornulella. These results suggest the polyphyletic nature of Isodictyidae and Acarnidae, for which reason we preferred to propose a new, currently monotypic family for Coelocarteria spp., Coelocarteriidae fam. nov. ZooBank: urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:71FDB6FD-4A5F-4180-8DA7-79EA4CB615D1 The remarkable similarity among three species of sponges from the Amazon reefs, seemingly classified in two distinct orders, necessitated an integrative assessment of the phylogenetic affinities. These species were all found to belong in a highly supported clade together with the type species of the poecilosclerid Coelocarteria (Demospongiae, Porifera). Since this clade did not nest more closely to any poecilosclerid family in particular, we propose to erect the monogeneric Coelocarteriidae fam. nov. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Type specimens are the core of taxonomical studies, unfortunately, many taxonomists in the 1800s did not officially designate type specimens nor type deposition institutions. Furthermore, oftentimes the original description did not include diagnosis or images. In order to help recognise obscure spider species, diagnosis and images of 73 spider-type specimens from South America, or genera also occurring on the continent are presented. Based on type examination four new synonyms are proposed: Abapeba hirta = Teminius insularis new syn., Araneus riveti = Araneus granadensis new syn., Scytodes vittata = Scytodes fusca new syn., and Pardosa riveti = Pardosa fastosa new syn.; and five new combinations are proposed: Creugas cayanus (Taczanowski, 1874) new comb., Emblyna andesiana (Berland, 1913) new comb., Mangora karschi (Roewer, 1942) new comb., Leucauge aureosignata (Lenz, 1891) new comb. and, Goeldia guayaquilensis (Schmidt 1971) new comb. Finally, three synonyms are rejected: Ulesanis chelys ≠ Ulesanis personata, Tetragnatha riveti ≠ Tetragnatha jaculator, and Meta alticola ≠ Chrysometa zelotypa. LSID: urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:399EF4D0-3AC0-4689-B466-C05619DC7D53. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discovery rates of new plant species need to be accelerated because many species will be extinct before they are formally described. Current studies have focused on where new species may occur and their characteristics. However, who will actually discover and describe these new species has received limited attention. Here, we used 31 576 vascular plant species distributed and described in China as a case study to explore the temporal patterns of the nationalities of the taxonomists. We found that most recently described species are endemic species, and there has been an increasing proportion of species descriptions by resident Chinese taxonomists over time. The proportion of species described by resident taxonomists reached an average of 80.8% between 1977 and 2018. By contrast, species discoveries by non-resident experts, often non-endemic species, showed signs of levelling off. Our study underscores an urgent need for training of, support for and collaboration with resident taxonomists in megadiverse countries with a high potential of discovering undescribed plant species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aglaia is the most widespread and species-rich genus in Meliaceae, comprising 124 species. Aglaia elaeagnoidea has presented a longstanding dilemma for taxonomists; it is highly morphologically and ecologically variable, and has a range extending across India, Southeast Asia, Australia and islands of the western Pacific Ocean. Previous work has examined molecular variation in the eastern part of the species' range; however, molecular variation in the western half of its distribution remained uncharacterised, precluding taxonomic resolution of the complex. In this study, we used DArT-seq analysis to investigate genetic structure in A. elaeagnoidea from India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Thailand, Java and Bali. We find a strong genetic disjunction between Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, suggesting that western A. elaeagnoidea comprises two taxa. On the basis of these results, in combination with morphology and previous molecular work on eastern A. elaeagnoidea, we resolve A. elaeagnoidea into three species, retaining A. elaeagnoidea for the eastern (type) species, and reinstating A. wallichii for a species in Bangladesh, Thailand, Java and Bali, and A. roxburghiana for a species occurring in India and Sri Lanka. We provide descriptions for each taxon and a key to the species, thereby resolving a previously difficult species group in a notoriously complex genus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The venation of the fore wings of male scale insects is strongly reduced and the nomenclature used for each vein is inconsistent among taxonomists. This paper reviews the different nomenclatural systems in the wing venation of male scale insects that have been suggested previously and puts forward a new system based mainly on newly found wing venation in males of Qinococcus podocarpus Wu, 2022 (Hemiptera: Coccomorpha: Qinococcidae). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this issue we have decided to use the names for each taxon in I Sorbus i L., as this is the system used in the most recent treatment of the British and Irish taxa (Rich I et al i ., [17]) and in the most recent flora (Stace, [28]), but noting that I Sorbus i in this sense ( I Sorbus sensu lato i ) is certainly not a natural (monophyletic) group. In contrast with other widely recognised genera of Malinae (which are largely monophyletic, i.e. they form a natural group of species that are more closely related to each other than they are to species in other genera), I Sorbus sensu lato i is problematic, as it is certainly polyphyletic, i.e. it consists of lineages that are less closely related to each other than they are to other genera. We point the reader in the direction of some of the important literature in which the complications and the reasons for them are discussed, beginning with a short account of the group of Rosaceae to which these species belong, Rosaceae subtribe Malinae. Rosaceae subtribe Malinae Previously treated as Rosaceae subfamily Maloideae (for a discussion of this, see, e.g., Rich I et al i ., [17], and references therein), Rosaceae subtribe Malinae are now generally considered part of subfamily Amygdaloideae (see, e.g., Sun I et al i ., [29]), sometimes incorrectly called subfamily Spiraeoideae. [Extracted from the article]

Taxonomic theology couples a biblical theology Of naming with the science Of taxonomy to highlight resonances between these disciplines while encouraging fruitful avenues of ethical and theological exploration around the naming Of living things. Categories Of discussion include the creative, relational, and protective aspects of taxonomy, embedded in a biblical theology Of image, stewardship, worship, and blessing. Taxonomic theology o#ers insights .tbr the taxonomist, the theologian, and the Church as a way to move Fom theory to practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study was aimed at investigating seed macro and micro-morphological and foliar epidermal anatomical characters of 15 Acanthus species from Pakistan. Firstly, plant specimens were collected and then identified on the basis of relevant references. For morphological analysis, seed characters were carefully examined using stereo microscopy and scanning microscopy to evaluate the usefulness of seed characteristics for the identification of systematic relationships. Considerable differences were found in seed coat morphology within studied taxa. Four types of seed surface pattern; striate (6 species), foveolate and papillate (2 species each), papillate rugose and rugose (one species each) were recognized. The dominant pattern of epicuticular projections was glabrous followed by prickles and bulges. Cell outlines were random and in rows while arrangement of cells was regular and irregular. For anatomical analysis, the foliar sections of leaves of each taxon were prepared, studied by light microscopy and then photographed by means of a Meiji affinity DK-5000 digital camera. Both adaxial and abaxial epidermis of the leaf has been studied and various micro-morphological characters examined including shape of epidermal cells, anticlinal wall pattern, lobes per cell, type of stomata and trichomes. Quantitatively, maximum epidermal cell length on adaxial and abaxial surface were observed in Dicliptera verticillata (Forssk.) C.Chr. (57.4 µm) and (57 µm) respectively. While stomata length was noted to be highest on abaxial side in Dicliptera verticillata (35.9 µm). The micro-morphological features and foliar epidermal anatomy of studied Acanthus species showed many novel characters for accurate taxonomic identification and provide baseline information for plant taxonomists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Fall 1939, as war engulfed Europe, the author of one of the most influential texts on genetics and evolution, Theodosius Dobzhansky, wrote a letter to curator of insects at the United States National Museum, Edward Albert Chapin. Dobzhansky wished to know what Chapin thought about his pursuing some taxonomic work on an old fascination of his: lady-bird beetles. This paper examines the resulting correspondence as a window into Dobzhansky's attitude toward taxonomy, the different pressures on geneticists and taxonomists when wrestling with how to name species, the relation between biological theory and taxonomic practice, and how claims regarding human races may have motivated Dobzhansky's continued interest in the work of beetle taxonomists. In doing so, this article builds on the work of Paul Farber and others to highlight the importance of including museums, taxonomy, and the naturalist tradition within the history of twentieth-century biology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The symbiosis between giant sea anemones, algae of the family Symbiodiniaceae, and anemonefish is an iconic example of a mutualistic trio 1,2. Molecular analyses have shown that giant sea anemones hosting anemonefish belong to three clades: Entacmaea , Stichodactyla , and Heteractis 3,4,5 (Figure 1A). Associations among 28 species of anemonefish and 10 species of giant sea anemone hosts are complex. Some fish species are highly specialized to only one anemone species (e.g., Amphiprion frenatus with Entacmaea quadricolor), whereas others are more generalist (e.g., Amphiprion clarkii) 1,2,6. Reasons for host preferences are obscured, among other things, by the lack of resolution in the giant sea anemone phylogeny. Here, we generated a transcriptomic dataset from 55 sea anemones collected from southern Japan to reconstruct these phylogenetic relationships. We observed that the bubble-tip sea anemone E. quadricolor , currently considered a single species, can be separated into at least four cryptic lineages (A–D). Surprisingly, these lineages can be precisely distinguished by observing their association with anemonefish: A. frenatus only associates with lineage D, whereas A. clarkii lives in the other three lineages. Kashimoto et al. show that anemonefish can discriminate distinct cryptic lineages of giant sea anemones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concepts in science have an important role: They delimit and specify objects, activities, processes, and abstract entities. When terms are diffuse, mean different things to different persons, and lead more to qualifications than demarcation, they cease to be concepts and may become labels, which are informal alternative designations. There are many labels in science and they have become abundant in taxonomy: α-taxonomy, integrative-taxonomy, iterative-taxonomy, etc., are only a few examples. α-taxonomy is a negative label that obtained popularity at the same time the term α-diversity became popular in ecology. The label α-taxonomy conveys a negative meaning to taxonomy because the nature of its evidence—originally morphological—is seen by many as "merely descriptive" and, thereby, supposedly inferior to other forms of evidence. This has contributed to substantial and unwarranted damage to the status of this science and to the careers of taxonomists. The recent history of methodologies for species delimitation shows that what some have considered of low value (morphology), compared to "new" data (molecular), is in many cases the critical factor to delimit species. We propose to eschew these kinds of labels and simply refer to taxonomy to avoid stigmatizing of any kind of practicing taxonomist, whether focused on morphology, cytology, molecular biology, or other fields of biology. Taxonomy implies the use of the current best evidence, theories, and methods to demarcate species and their relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the context of biodiversity crisis, targeted efforts are required to accelerate the discovery and description of the still-unknown species. In the present study, we collected data on current knowledge of plant richness in South Africa and used a statistical modeling technique to predict what might still be missing in the country. We found that we might be missing 1400–1575 plant species, and it might take 40–45 years to identify and describe these species aided by 64–315 taxonomists. Surveyed taxonomists spent USD 95,559, on average, to describe one species. At this rate, USD 150,506,142 would be required to describe the 1575 species (modeling) or USD 133,783,237 for the 1400 remaining species (expert opinion). However, these estimates do not correspond to what is specifically required for only species description but does integrate connected activities, e.g., running cost, bursary, salaries, grants, etc. Furthermore, these estimates do not account for the possibility of taxonomic revision, which, on its own, needs to be funded, nor do they account for molecular laboratory requirement. Nevertheless, if we consider that 15% of the predicted funds are solely spent on taxonomic activities, we would need ~USD 14,334 on one species. Overall, our study provides figures that can inform attempts to fuel efforts toward a comprehensive assessment of the unique South Africa's biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationships among sections and species within each section in the genus Populus have attracted much attention from taxonomists and biologists. In this paper, we provide an overview of the current state of Populus phylogenetics and discuss the origin of some hybrid species. There has been some controversy surrounding the origin of the genus Populus in North America and subsequent dispersal and differentiation in other parts of the world. We present the most plausible scenario based on phylogenetic analysis and fossil records. Sections Abaso, Turanga and Populus are all monophyletic, whereas sections Aigeiros, Tacamahaca and Leucoidesshow some degree of polyphyly. Sections Abaso and Turanga are relatively primitive lineages in Populus. With the accumulation of sequencing data and new analytical tools, it will be possible to investigate more complicated issues concerning genus Populus within a phylogenetic framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seventeen genotypes of Ophiocordyceps sinensis have been identified in molecular mycology studies of natural Cordyceps sinensis, comprising multiple fungi and a dead larva from the Hepialidae family. However, these multiple genotypes belonging to independent fungi share the same Latin name, O. sinensis, which has compounded the historical problems associated with the indiscriminate sharing of the same Latin name for both the fungus and the natural insect-fungi complex. This paper reviews the scientific findings for multiple O. sinensis genotypes in natural C. sinensis and the history of and current perspectives on indiscriminately using the Latin names C. sinensis and O. sinensis for the multiple O. sinensis anamorphs and teleomorphs per the nomenclature rule established by the Amsterdam Declaration, "One Fungus=One Name", and for the natural C. sinensis insect-fungi complex. Although some Chinese scientists have proposed the use of "Chinese cordyceps" or "Ophiocordyceps & Hepialidae" for natural C. sinensis to partially resolve the indiscriminate usage of the Latin name, the mycological research community is facing a scientific challenge because multiple O. sinensis genotypes are currently nonculturable in vitro (except Genotype #1 Hirsutella sinensis), and the mutant sequences of Genotypes #2-17 are not present in the genome of H. sinensis. This paper encourages cooperation among taxonomists across disciplines to resolve the taxonomic nomenclature problem by characterizing O. sinensis fungi with mutant genotypes and to end the centuries-old academic confusion over the indiscriminate use of the same Latin name for O. sinensis fungi and the natural insectfungi complex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the representative attributes built around specific subjects or uniqueness in publishing forms, special collections are often viewed as important asset of research libraries. However, previous studies have pointed out the common issues of hidden collections and backlogs in many special collections due to the unfamiliarity of the collections. This bibliometric study adopts the research methods of document analysis and citation analysis to investigate NTU Tanaka Collection, a special collection about botanical literature housed by National Taiwan University Library. 204 of the plant taxonomist Tanaka Tyozaburo's publications and the 792 citations he used are selected for citation analysis with reference to the history of taxonomic botany. The results of the study suggest NTU Tanaka Collection possesses significant and important references to taxonomic botanists in general, and to Tanaka's research on the identification and phylogeny of citrus fruits in specific. According to the findings, this study provides a historical bibliography and a reference network of NTU Tanaka Collection. This study is one of the very few empirical studies that adopted bibliometric analyses in library special collection, and it also provides rather thorough and objective evidence of scholarly usage of special collections. The findings of the study contribute to the research and practices of special collection curation and outreach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Alarming claims have been made regarding the looming 'extinction' of parasite taxonomists. • We provide the first quantitative test of these claims using species descriptions of fish parasites. • Inequalities in output reveal that a few taxonomists account for most new species descriptions. • These few taxonomists are mostly in late career, with no real sign of a changing of the guard. • We support earlier claims that taxonomic expertise is being lost faster than it is being replaced. In recent years, several authors have warned that the number of trained experts in parasite taxonomy and systematics is declining rapidly, and that the whole field is at risk. However, to date there has been no quantitative analysis to support these claims. Here, we provide the first such assessment, focusing on helminths parasitic in fish as an example, and using a representative dataset comprising over 2000 helminth species described in the past two decades. Based on standard indices of inequality, we demonstrate that a small group of highly prolific taxonomists are associated with the vast majority of new species descriptions, indicating that the research output in parasite discovery is concentrated in the hands of a small number of individuals. This situation has not improved over time. Furthermore, there has been no turnover over time, i.e., no replacement of the most prolific taxonomists: the individual researchers ranking among the most prolific describers of new parasite helminth species in the past decade were generally also the most prolific in the decade before that. Finally, based on the year in which these most prolific taxonomists published their first species description, we estimate that a large proportion of them are in the latter stages of their career. Inequalities in research output are the norm across scientific disciplines. However, persistent inequality in the number of species description per author, coupled with the same individuals ranking as most prolific over time and a majority of them in late career, all combine to support earlier claims that parasite taxonomy may well face a crisis in the form of an impending loss of taxonomic expertise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is broad recognition by practicing taxonomists that the field is going through a crisis, which has been dubbed the "taxonomic impediment". There are many aspects involved in said crisis, but publication practices in taxonomy are often neglected or relegated to the backseat. We provide an initial foray into this topic via a worldwide survey with taxonomists, spanning all botanical and zoological groups, and career stages. Demographically, most of the respondents identified themselves as males (70%), working in Europe or North America (68%), in universities (50%) or museums (27%). Over half of the respondents are established/late-career researchers (only about 25% of full professors were female), with a low number of early-career researchers and graduate students (i.e., taxonomists in training). Nearly 61% of the men acquired their highest title at least eleven years ago, while only 41% of the women did so. Nearly 92% of the respondents have published new species descriptions, while around 60% and 26% have synonymized, respectively, species-level or subspecies-level taxa. In general, respondents perceive the act of describing new species to be easier than synonymizing species (p = 0.05). Established/late-career researchers and male researchers, particularly in Oceania and North America, found it easier to publish nomenclatural acts such as new species descriptions, while early-career researchers had their acts contested more often. Our results reaffirm the low academic recognition of the field, the lack of funding for research and publishing charges especially in the Global South, and the difficulty in finding specialized outlets (and the low impact factor of those journals) as persistent issues in taxonomy. Other significant problems raised by respondents include ethical issues in the peer-review process, a bias against newcomers in the field coming either from established researchers or committees, and taxonomic vandalism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since early studies, the history of prokaryotes taxonomy has dealt with many changes driven by the development of new and more robust technologies. As a result, the number of new taxa descriptions is exponentially increasing, while an increasing number of others has been subject of reclassification, demanding from the taxonomists more effort to maintain an organized hierarchical system. However, expectations are that the taxonomy of prokaryotes will acquire a more stable status with the genomic era. Other analyses may continue to be necessary to determine microbial features, but the use of genomic data might be sufficient to provide reliable taxa delineation, helping taxonomy to reach the goal of correct classification and identification. Here we describe the evolution of prokaryotes' taxonomy until the genomic era, emphasizing bacteria and taking as an example the history of rhizobia taxonomy. This example was chosen because of the importance of the symbiotic nitrogen fixation of legumes with rhizobia to the nitrogen input to both natural ecosystems and agricultural crops. This case study reports the technological advances and the methodologies used to classify and identify bacterial species and indicates the actual rules required for an accurate description of new taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Herbarium specimens are dried plants mounted onto paper. They are used by a limited number of researchers, such as plant taxonomists, as a source of information on morphology and distribution. Recently, digitised herbarium specimens have begun to be used in comprehensive research to address broader issues. However, some specimens have been misidentified, and if used, there is a risk of drawing incorrect conclusions. In this study, we successfully developed a system for identifying taxon names with high accuracy using an image recognition system. We developed a system with an accuracy of 96.4% using 500,554 specimen images of 2171 plant taxa (2064 species, 9 subspecies, 88 varieties, and 10 forms in 192 families) that grow in Japan. We clarified where the artificial intelligence is looking to make decisions, and which taxa is being misidentified. As the system can be applied to digitalised images worldwide, it is useful for selecting and correcting misidentified herbarium specimens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pedicularis sudetica can be a difficult complex to identify and classify using herbarium specimens. Colors fade, rendering corolla patterns indistinct. Especially problematic is the presence of spots on the lobes of the lower lip and color patterns of the galea. Spots are either clearly visible or so faded that only a few spots are visible on one or two flowers in the inflorescence. Galeas are either unequivocally bicolored, solid, or indistinctly diffuse. Other characters have been inconsistently applied by taxonomists and/or are difficult to discern. All these factors combined only serve to confound taxon identity and classification, and members of the complex have been classified as species, subspecies, or even varieties by different taxonomists. Multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) of qualitative traits and principal component analysis (PCA) of quantitative traits were employed to explore the character and taxonomic structure of the group. MCA revealed that only three characters are necessary to classify the four taxa of the complex. No taxon structure was evident with PCA. Abundance of intermediate specimens over a broad geographic range indicates hybridization is extensive among members of the complex and suggests that a subspecific classification of the group is appropriate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jakob Emanuel Lange (1864-1941), Danish mushroom taxonomist and illustrator, was an agricultural educator and economic philosopher. A follower and translator of the American Henry George, Lange was Headmaster of a "Small-holders High-School," which served as a model for American folk-schools. Lange visited North America on three occasions. The first, in 1927, relied on his professional expertise; the second, in 1931, was purely mycological; and the third, 1939, was a combination of the two. All of this was lived against two World Wars and the Great Depression. This paper summarises the circumstances of Lange's life against a background of the American mycologists of the day, the ominous events over his adult lifetime and his magnum opus, "Flora Agaricina Danica", of five volumes illustrating ca. 1200 species on 200 coloured plates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]