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Peer collaboration benefits second language (L2) learning and is a cornerstone of effective classroom instruction. It is, therefore, essential for teachers to consider how tasks work to promote peer collaboration and thus maximize learning. These considerations concern the task type, a task's inherent characteristics, and possible ways of task implementation to achieve peer collaboration. The body of research within the Task-based language teaching (TBLT) framework has shown that task-based instruction provides an optimal environment for second language acquisition. However, with regard to young learners (YLs), children from 5 to 12 years of age, the role of tasks in fostering peer collaboration in FL classrooms is not clear-cut. Grounded in research on task-based peer interaction among YLs, this article outlines how tasks enhance peer collaboration in foreign language (FL) classrooms.

This research paper delves into the origins of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) speaking anxiety in Moroccan high school students and offers potential remedies to reduce or prevent its occurrence, with a particular emphasis on encouraging a willingness to speak. The study involved 37 high school teachers who completed a questionnaire regarding their strategies to mitigate speaking anxiety and promote communication willingness among Moroccan EFL high school students. The data was collected and analyzed using SPSS. The findings reveal that anxiety stems from various factors, including linguistic issues (such as limited vocabulary, grammar challenges, and fluency), personal factors (such as learner personality and motivation), and teacher-related factors (including feedback quality and classroom activities). Moreover, the research suggests that teachers should prioritize strategies like providing positive feedback, offering praise, and incorporating collaborative work or task-based learning to reduce students' EFL speaking anxiety. Additionally, teacher participants proposed additional strategies focused on a variety of activities and methods to foster a welcoming classroom atmosphere.

Eye-tracking (ET) method provides a promising channel for educational researchers to connect learning outcomes to cognitive processes. The main principle of ET is that our gaze and our focus of attention are connected. Due to the advent of digital technologies, eye tracking studies are increasingly growing in different fields and in mathematics education. We assume that the provided task is one of the ways to analyse deeply cognitive processes, and we wonder how ET studies are dealing with the integration of digital technology in task-design in geometry. Starting from Strohmaier et al. (2020) we found three studies, one focused on geometric proofs and two based on construction of geometric objects. We highlight the contributions of integrating digital technology in learning and instruction, and in research in geometry.

Multitasking has been demonstrated to negatively impact performance across a wide range of tasks, including in the classroom, yet students continue to multitask. This study examined the relationship between college students' perceptions and performance of technology-based multitasking. Technology-based multitasking and self-efficacy data were collected and analyzed from 265 undergraduate students. Students engaged in a technology-based multitasking perceptions survey, a video + survey multitasking task or a video-only non-multitasking task, and a technology-based self-efficacy survey. An analysis of student perceptions indicated that students understood that different tasks required different levels of mental effort to complete successfully and that multitasking across high-mental effort tasks required greater effort than multitasking across low-mental effort tasks. In addition, students in the video + survey multitasking group significantly underperformed students in the video-only non-multitasking group. Finally, the relationship between technology-based multitasking and self-efficacy was addressed in a correlational analysis between student technology-based multitasking scores and technology-based self-efficacy scores, yielding no significant relationship. The study findings indicate that most students have an understanding and awareness of multitasking, but ultimately, whether they believed they could multitask or not, multitasking significantly impeded performance.

The contents of calculus, known for their complexity, present significant challenges for students, particularly in mastering multiple integrals and effectively visualizing related concepts. The transition to distance learning prompted by the COVID-19 pandemic has further complicated the learning process in multiple integrals. In line with this and considering the potential of computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL), in this research we explore the impact of teaching in a CSCL environment on student achievements, focusing on students from the computer science study program. Through data analysis using ANOVA and Bonferroni post-hoc tests, it was found that students exposed to collaborative learning in GeoGebra environment demonstrated higher levels of theoretical and practical knowledge compared to peers who acquired knowledge without using GeoGebra. Additionally, this group of students achieved results comparable to those of students who attended traditional in-person teaching, showing noticeable improvements in solving complex tasks. Our findings show the effectiveness of CSCL approach in context of distance learning and highlight potential of collaborative environments enhanced with technology in facilitating student understanding and achievements in calculus education.

Flavell's theory of metacognition was innovative at the time for its promising practicality. However, research findings that report inconsistencies in metacognitive trainings' outcomes and insufficiencies of translating the theory into mainstream classrooms have accumulated since then. In this sense, there may be a need to revisit metacognition theory for its practicality and credentiality. From a phenomenological perspective, this paper first describes the fundamental tenant of theory; thinking, and whether metacognition theory recognizes the nature of thinking. To manage thinking, it should be stimulated first. In other words, a sensitivity towards a stimulus that is metacognitive responsiveness needs to be raised to initiate the attendance of higher order thinking. Thinking and metacognitive responsiveness pertain to personal relevance, attentiveness, interest, previous experiences, tools for thinking, features of tasks, and the nature of social interactions. Therefore, it is important to present the stimulus designed or adapted to initiate individuals' thinking or metacognitive responsiveness. In this paper, Flavell's theory of metacognition was revised to embrace metacognitive responsiveness explicitly, and it is highlighted that practical implications need to focus on materials to initiate metacognitive responsiveness.

Exploring international students' long-distance relationships with their back-home families is important for understanding how to support their stability and growth. Using qualitative interviews and surveys, this research explored perspectives from both international students and their parents about their remote interactions while oceans apart. Findings indicate three transformative shifts that enhanced the quality of student-parent relationships through their distance: a) incidental to intentionally motivated interactions, b) task-oriented to person-centered attention, and c) authoritarian to communally-oriented dispositions. These shifts fostered a greater sense of trust, support, and intimacy between international students and their back-home parents. Interweaving Construal Level Theory with the findings, this study offers implications for informing international students and their parents on developing effective, long-distance relationships.

This study examines the role of recast frequency and its effectiveness in the acquisition of English articles in a computer-mediated context. Sixty-one preintermediate university language learners in Turkey were randomly divided into four main groups: high frequency recast (HF), low frequency recast (LF), test control, and task control groups. The learners in the HF and LF recast groups completed five and two tasks, respectively, in a video-conferencing environment and received oral recasts on their incorrect use of English articles. Learners in the test control group only took the pre and posttests, and learners in the task control group completed five tasks without receiving feedback on the target structure. The outcome was measured through online picture description and error correction tasks. Findings showed that in the picture description task, learners in the HF group performed significantly better than those in the LF recast group and the control groups. In the error correction task, the results revealed a short-term advantage for learners in the HF group, which faded away in the delayed posttest. Significant correlations were also found between the recast frequency and learners' score improvement in the immediate and delayed picture description tasks but not in the error correction tasks. These results suggest that recast quantity may play an important role in improving learners' accuracy of their oral production.

Concurrency is a complex to learn topic that is becoming more and more relevant, such that many undergraduate Computer Science curricula are introducing it in introductory programming courses. This paper investigates the combined use of Sonic Pi and Team-Based Learning to mitigate the difficulties in early exposure to concurrency. Sonic Pi, a domain-specific music language, provides great support for "playing" with concurrency, and "hearing" common problems such as data races and lack of synchronization among different concurrent threads. More specifically, the paper focuses on students' misconceptions regarding concurrency in Sonic Pi and compares them to those arising in traditional concurrent programming languages. In addition, it preliminarily explores knowledge transfer from Sonic Pi to C/C++. The approach has been applied in two teaching experiments with undergraduate students in our University involving 184 participants. Our investigations bring out the need to address misconceptions through targeted interventions for a clear understanding of concurrent programming concepts. Sonic Pi's simplified abstraction and domain-specific flavor has demonstrated to be effective, especially for first-year students.

The paper discusses an alternative method of assessing the difficulty of pupils' programming tasks to determine their age appropriateness. Building a program takes the form of its successive iterations. Thus, it is possible to monitor the number of times such a program was built by the solver. The variance of the number of program builds can be considered as a criterion of the difficulty of the task. We seek to verify whether this variance is the greatest in the age group for which the task is most suitable. We created several series of programming tasks and offered them to 87000 pupils from 4th to 13th grade. For each task, we compared the optimal age group determined by the variance of the number of program builds method with the group determined by the correct answer ratio method. A strong correlation was observed in traditional microworlds Karel the Robot and Turtle. A moderate correlation was achieved in the new microworld Movie.

Research has shown that university students approach STEM fields with preconceived notions that has the ability to influence their future STEM trajectories. Several scholarly investigations have explored pedagogical methodologies that not only recognize but actively validate the varied proficiencies that these pupils possess. This nested mixed methods study contributes to this work. Data sources included a survey, a card sorting activity, and student written reflections. By employing a thematic data analysis framework, the results indicated that students held the following perceptions of STEM: (1) STEM is task-oriented; (2) STEM is bound together by external ties; and (3) STEM is both optimistic and cognizant of the journey ahead. These results highlight the correlation between the perceptions and experiences of marginalized students in STEM. The study's implications suggest that to address the obstacles presented by external factors that hinder the acknowledgment of underrepresented students in STEM fields, policymakers, and academic institutions should take proactive steps to establish mitigation strategies.

Language Learning Strategies (LLSs) assist learners to develop cognitive or behavioral competences to make the language learning process more self-directed and effective. In the current educational contexts, think-aloud methods are used to provide insights into the cognitive processes of individuals as they engage in enhancement of skills and tasks or problem-solving activities. This study aimed at identifying the type and frequency of LLSs used by intermediate and advanced Jordanian EFL learners and investigating whether there were any qualitative differences in the behaviour of participants while using think-aloud protocols in completing their tasks. A qualitative research design was followed, by sampling 70 senior university students of Al al-Bayt University, Jordan. The Oxford Quick Placement Test was used to further classify them into intermediate (36 students) and advanced (34 students) groups. For major tasks of the study, 20 students were randomly selected from each of these two groups. These groups were assigned think-aloud tasks in reading, writing and listening to investigate the LLSs they used. The results revealed a diverse range of LLSs employed by the participants across various tasks, except for social strategies, as the tasks did not involve any social interaction or communication. It was also revealed that participants were active strategic learners and were aware of their cognitive processes. The study can help EFL learners in general, and Jordanian ones in particular, gain a deeper insight into the actual use of LLSs when dealing with language tasks, which can make a positive impact on their performance.

Engaging students in active learning environments like task-based presentations can be challenging, as several factors influence their motivation. The purpose of this study was to investigate the factors influencing motivation in task-based learning in the English for Presentation course. Thirty undergraduate students who enrolled in the English for Presentation course in the second semester of the 2022 academic year at a university in Bangkok, Thailand, were purposively selected as the participants for the study. The research instrument was the minute paper that students were asked to write about their thoughts and feelings in response to the presented task, which required them to work independently, in pairs, and in groups. The study revealed that students' intrinsic motivation, English proficiency, task relevance, instructor support, and task variety were the factors that influenced their motivation in task-based learning in the English for Presentation course. The study found that the intrinsic motivation of the students was the most significant factor in the English for Presentation course after considering each factor. The findings of this study are valuable to all stakeholders in the learning and teaching process in order to create successful strategies, raise motivation, and promote positive attitudes about English learning and teaching in Thai context.

Vocabulary acquisition is a fundamental element of mastering the English language, necessitating a comprehensive lexicon that evolves through experiential learning to facilitate accurate comprehension and production of language. The current study examined the impact of Total Physical Response (TPR) tasks on the vocabulary acquisition of Thai primary school students, with a particular focus on the definition of words. It also explored the students' attitudes towards using TPR tasks for vocabulary learning. The TPR tasks were designed to engage three of the human senses--visual, auditory, and tactile--by incorporating multisensory tasks. Employing a mixed-methods research design, the study involved 27 second graders from a primary school in northeastern Thailand. The research methodology utilized three instruments. From a quantitative perspective, the Receptive Word Knowledge Test (RWKT) and the Productive Word Knowledge Test (PWKT) were administered to assess the students' vocabulary knowledge before and after the intervention within a single-group pretest-posttest framework. Qualitatively, a focus group interview was conducted to gain deeper insight into the students' attitudes towards participation in TPR activities. The quantitative data indicated a significant enhancement in both receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge among the participants. Furthermore, the qualitative findings highlighted the advantages of TPR tasks, with students expressing increased enthusiasm and competitive spirit and a shared willingness and pleasure in vocabulary learning through interactive tasks and peer interaction. In conclusion, this study corroborates the efficacy of TPR tasks in significantly advancing Thai primary school students' receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge.

Computational thinking (CT) is a concept of growing importance to pre-university education. Yet, CT is often assessed through results, rather than by looking at the CT process itself. Process-based assessments, or assessments that model how a student completed a task, could instead investigate the process of CT as a formative assessment. In this work, we proposed an approach for developing process-based assessments using constructionist tasks specifically for CT assessment in K-12 contexts, with a focus on directly connecting programming artifacts to aspects of CT. We then illustrated such an assessment with 29 students who ranged in CT and programming experience. These students completed both a constructionist task and a traditional CT assessment. Data from the constructionist task was used to build a process-based assessment and results were compared between the two assessment methods. The process-based assessment produced groups of students who differed in their approach to the task with varying levels of success. However, there was no difference between groups of students in the scores on the traditional CT assessment. Process-based assessment from our approach may be useful as formative assessment to give process feedback, localized to the task given to students.

This quasi-experimental research aimed to describe the syllabus design process using the "backward design model" and its features to determine the teacher candidates' perceptions of its application in the English Skills Development course. To achieve these objectives, the syllabus based on the BDM was designed before starting the course; after that, it was applied to sixteen students enrolled in a teacher preparation program at a Hungarian university in Budapest. At the end of the course, the participants developed sixteen final projects related to the main topic of the course, teaching English as a Foreign Language in Hungary and following the Goal, Role, Audience, Situation, Product, Standard (GRASPS) framework to conduct authentic performance tasks. This research method involves collecting data through written reflections, focus-group interviews and content analysis of the conducted performance tasks. The results show that BDM and authentic performance tasks can be used as a coherent, organized, and flexible syllabus design that supports EFL students by providing differentiated instruction to foster their English skills, creativity, problem-solving and critical thinking skills, long life and autonomous learning, and digital competencies. Furthermore, the results of the study make an essential contribution to the context of EFL by suggesting that planning the syllabus based on the BDM creates strong connections between course objectives, assessment, content, teaching strategies, and technology, thereby offering a practical framework for educators to enhance their teaching practices in the digital age.

The development of new forms of technology has resulted in new methodologies and approaches in pedagogical practices, particularly within the field of foreign language education. This is especially useful in foreign language teaching because it allows students geographically distant to interact remotely. Moreover, the integration of task-based and project-oriented approaches implies a substantial increase in the quality and volume of communicative exchanges in virtual learning environments. This study aims to undertake a comparative analysis of two distinct online groups engaged in the same English B2 level course, although with different pedagogical strategies. While one group engages in collaborative, communicative tasks and a collective project, the other focuses on the individual completion of exercises and drills. Pre- and post-tests were administered to participants of both groups to gauge their linguistic progression. The findings reveal that the group involved in interactive tasks and collaborative projects demonstrated superior advancements in language proficiency. Furthermore, these participants reported an enhanced sense of confidence in their communicative competencies within professional contexts. The study concludes that integrating project-based learning and telecollaborative practices holds considerable potential to enhance the efficacy of foreign language instruction.

Previous research has shown that L1-L2 congruency is a facilitative factor in collocation processing. The present study explores the congruency effect between learners' L2 and L3. Thirty-three proficient Norwegian learners with Lithuanian as their L1 and English as their L2 completed a phase acceptability task consisting of three groups of Norwegian collocations: congruent with L2, congruent with both L1 and L2, and incongruent with both. The results revealed that collocation L2-L3 congruency facilitates collocation processing.

This manuscript describes how one entry-level occupational therapy doctoral (OTD) program used an innovative approach to scaffolding assignments through a cognitive apprenticeship (CA) framework. Cognitive apprenticeship strategies include learning in the context or culture of the profession. This is achieved through observation, coaching, engagement, and discovery of strategies by the instructor. This framework was implemented to facilitate the learning of occupational, activity, and task (OAT) analyses through a four-week module within a first-semester foundations course. Cognitive apprenticeship constructs were used as instructional teaching strategies including active learning, group facilitated assignments, hands on observation, and immediate feedback and modeling of professional reasoning by the instructor. The assessment of findings supporting the effectiveness of the use of CA to implement this module included a mixed methods approach. A quantitative analysis of pre- and post-test surveys measuring confidence levels related to entry-level occupational therapy practice skills demonstrated that each survey item was statistically significant for increased confidence. A qualitative analysis of open-ended questions identified themes related to teaching strategies and the development of a foundational occupational therapy identity. The aim of this project is to expand the use of similar evidence-based applications for CA to progress student professional reasoning and occupational therapy practice skills while also supporting development of an emerging professional identity. This manuscript makes a substantive contribution to the teaching and application of analyses within OT education and the use of professional terminology, particularly the foundational understanding of the Occupational Therapy Practice Framework-IV and how it is applied in practice. The module demonstrated successful scaffolding of concepts built across several weeks. Cognitive apprenticeship constructs facilitated students' progression from novice to competent problem solvers within an OT context, which positively impacted the reported confidence of associated entry-level skills.

Teachers perceive student engagement in many ways, and do not necessarily align engagement strategies they employ with their own conceptualization of this construct. This situation is worsened in online learning of which popularity has grown since the emergence of the COVID-19 global pandemic. We explored perceptions of student engagement in online learning, both synchronous and asynchronous, using semi-structured in-depth interviews with K-12 teachers (N=13). We referred to different dimensions (behavioral, emotional, social, and cognitive) and contexts (student, peers, class, school, and home). Findings suggest that student engagement in online learning has unique characteristics: It is mostly behavioral, particularly task-centered; it relates to student-, class-, and home contexts; and teachers take responsibility on- and act upon issues related to it.

The present study employs regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997) to investigate the effects of L2 speakers' chronic regulatory focus on their L2 pragmatic versus grammatical awareness. It involved the participation of 121 Chinese students, who are English language learners, at a university in the United States. Haws et al.'s (2010) questionnaire was used to examine the participants' regulatory dispositions, and a judgment task was adapted from Bardovi-Harlig and Dörnyei (1998) to assess participants' awareness of grammatical and pragmatic errors, as well as the severity of each type of error. Multiple regression results largely confirmed the predictions. Prevention regulatory focus, concerned with obligations, responsibilities, and negative outcomes, predicted L2 speakers' recognition of grammatical errors and their severity. Conversely, promotion focus, which emphasizes growth, accomplishments, and positive outcomes, positively predicted L2 speakers' perceptions of pragmatic error severity. These findings contribute to the understanding of how differences in chronic motivational orientations can lead to different L2 use patterns and characteristics.

While Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) has been widely researched and accepted as a potentially powerful teaching method in language education around the world, research examining the teachers' beliefs about the impacts of a training on TBLT to date has remained limited. In Vietnam, studies on this topic were scarce (Nguyen & Jaspaert, 2021). This study thus investigates the Vietnamese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in-service teachers' beliefs about the impact of a TBLT training program. To collect data, classroom observations followed by semi-structured interviews were conducted with five volunteer teachers. The findings showed that the teachers generally had strong beliefs in the usefulness of the TBLT training program for professional development, and their willingness to pursue TBLT teaching. Although there exist barriers hindering this TBLT training program, many teachers expressed interest to undergo more TBLT training in the future. The findings in this study are expected to provide some insightful pedagogical implications for developing a TBLT training program for in-service teachers in the similar context of language education in Vietnam and other EFL settings.

Elementary school students still need help learning English, resulting in low learning outcomes. The lack of learning facilities and the application of inappropriate learning models impact students' low motivation to learn English. Regarding this matter, this study aims to examine the effectiveness of task-based e-learning on students' cognitive dissonance and reading engagement in learning English at elementary schools. The study was designed in a Quasi-Experimental Design with a posttest-only control group design. The population of the study was 158 4th-grade elementary school students. A random sampling technique was used in this study with a sample size of 55 4th-grade elementary school students. A survey was used to collect the data. The instrument used to collect research data was a questionnaire sheet. Two-way ANOVA was used to test the hypothesis. The results of the study show a significant effect simultaneously and partially with a Sig. value < 0.05, task-based e-learning has an impact on students' cognitive dissonance and reading engagement in learning English at elementary schools. The study implies that applying task-based e-learning can make it easier for students to learn English, which impacts their cognitive dissonance and reading engagement.

This paper investigates the cognitive processes involved in English word recognition among young EFL learners using eye-tracking methodology. A quasi-experimental mixed method design was used to investigate how young L2 learners engage with basic words, with or without pictorial cues. A total of seventeen 6th-grade pupils from two schools participated in the experiment. The participants were presented with a list of 20 words and were asked to read them aloud while their eye movements were tracked to discern their viewing patterns. Immediately after the reading task, stimulated-recall interviews were conducted to triangulate and validate the participants' viewing behaviors. Results indicate that participants focused significantly more on the text than the accompanying pictures yet demonstrated better performance in recognizing and reading the words presented in a picture-based mode. Some participants reported that the pictures were not viewed because the words were easy to read. In contrast, others struggled to read certain words due to an over-reliance on their background knowledge, which sometimes led to misinterpretation. These results emphasize the importance of integrating visual cues with word recognition instruction in early language learning contexts, highlighting when and how these cues should be utilized effectively.

This study aims to reconstruct Grade 11 students' misconceptions about force through the Conceptual Change Model (CCM) making use of Predict, Discuss, Explain, Observe, Discuss, Explore, Explain (PDEODEE) tasks. This study was conducted using a mixedmethod approach. The participants in this study were 65 students (33 students in the experiment class--13 males and 20 females, and 32 students in the control class--12 males and 20 females) from a high school in Bandung, Indonesia. The instrument test used is the Four-Tier Test-formed Force Concept Inventory (4TT-FCI) with 8 question items. Three analyses were carried out: an analysis of students' misconception profiles during the pre-test and post-test, the reconstruction of students' misconceptions analysed based on percentage and codification using Great Change (GC), Not Change (NC), and Un-Great Change (U-GC). The improvement in students' conception was carried out using N-Gain with three categories (Low, Moderate, and High). The results show that the students' conception profile during the pre-test and post-test still detects misconceptions. However, these misconceptions can be ameliorated using CCM with PDEODEE tasks because the highest conceptual change is in the Misconceptions category (GC= 34.5) and the lowest is in the Un-Code category (U-GC= 2.4). The increase in the correctness of the conception was measured in the experimental class at 0.73 (High category), and the control class is 0.42 (Moderate Category).

This study compares two leadership styles, emergent leader (EL) and assigned leader (AL), to explore effective leadership in second language (L2) group work. ELs were spontaneously chosen by the group, while ALs were pre-assigned by teachers before the task. The study involved 45 university students, who were divided into seven EL groups (n = 21) and eight AL groups (n = 24). Complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) was used to explore how these leadership styles impacted group work dynamics, motivation, and task outcomes. Findings revealed that having a group leader was beneficial for task performance, regardless of the leadership style. However, the study identified qualitative differences in group work dynamics and motivation between EL and AL groups. Behaviors contributing to group work activation were more frequently observed in the AL groups. Additionally, motivation increased gradually in the EL groups, while it peaked early and remained high in the AL groups. Results suggest that pre-assigning a leader with a clear role can ensure favorable initial conditions for the group, leader, and members, while accelerating the growth of group work dynamics and motivation in short-timed group tasks. Therefore, the study provides evidence supporting the effectiveness of pre-assigning a leader in L2 group work.

Scheduling of practice to create a spacing effect has been observed to lead to superior retention of L2 vocabulary and grammar. Two of the various methods of scheduling L2 task practice discussed widely in recent times are interleaving and blocking. In a desirable difficulty framework, both of these methods have been recommended for task repetition practices aimed at learning L2 vocabulary and grammar. Used at the appropriate level of difficulty both have been observed to facilitate the automatization and proceduralization of linguistic knowledge. Keeping two groups of 44 Indian adolescent English as L2 learners under interleaved and blocked conditions during a three-month-long task repetition practice program, the present study attempted to measure the difference in the effect of interleaving and blocking on the retention rate of English vocabulary and grammar. No statistically significant difference in the effect of these two methods on the retention of English vocabulary and grammar was recorded in a repeated measures ANOVA test (p=0.17, F=2.05, d=0.09) conducted on the pre-test, intermediate test, and post-test scores of the participants. Both groups continued to demonstrate limited flexibility and appropriacy in word choice and rare instances of complex forms and structures of sentences in English throughout the three tests.

The present study investigates the students' perceptions of applying performance tasks based on the GRASPS framework, exploring and seeking to explain the relationships between these tasks and English language learning. Data was collected over one semester in 14 public secondary schools in Ecuador, and it consisted of a questionnaire applied to 283 EFL students and two focus-group interviews with 12 EFL learners. After receiving a two-week workshop, sixteen Ecuadorian EFL teachers planned three units following the three stages based on the Backward Design Model (Wiggings & McTigue, 2005); however, this study focuses on the students' perceptions of the GRASPS framework. Overall, the students showed high levels of awareness of the benefits of developing performance tasks based on the GRASPS framework. The main benefits encountered by these students were improving English skills, fostering creativity, and autonomous and lifelong learning. Subsequently, the primary takeaway from this study proposes applying the GRASPS framework as a potential support for EFL learning. Theoretical and practical implications are presented, and further research suggestions are provided.

The need to create more efficient approaches to teaching L2 writing has grown due to the increasing demands placed on English writing proficiency in a global setting. The present investigation aimed to explore the impacts of the ENGAGE Model and task-based language teaching (TBLT) method on Iranian EFL learners' overall L2 writing performance. According to their performance on the standard Oxford Quick Placement Test, 67 Iranian female EFL learners between 18 and 25 years old were chosen for this quasi-experimental study. The participants were divided into three groups at random: the ENGAGE group (N=22), the TBLT group (N=24), and the control group (N=21). The participants were given a writing pretest to verify their L2 writing homogeneity. Then, they went through 12 sessions of instruction. After the treatment, the participants received the writing posttest to measure the learners' development in L2 writing. One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed that the ENGAGE model more substantially impacted Iranian EFL learners' overall L2 essay writing skills than the TBLT. ELT professionals, curriculum designers, English teachers, and learners can utilize the study's findings to solve linguistic and metalinguistic problems.

To this day, there are only a few studies that have used a controlled instructional intervention on specific linguistic structures to investigate if language instruction is beneficial for heritage learners (HLs), in the same way it is for second (L2) language learners, and more research in this area is rapidly needed (Bowles, 2018). The results from this small body of research suggest that explicit language instruction can be beneficial for HLs, but overall L2 learners still appear to benefit from language instruction more than their HLs counterparts (Potowski et al., 2009; Torres, 2018, inter alia). The present study seeks to contribute to this growing body of research and further examines if the type of task employed to measure learning gains plays a role in the uneven outcomes heritage and L2 learners evidence after receiving language instruction.

Mendelian genetics are essential for students seeking to comprehend the complexities of inheritance; although fundamental, these biology concepts are difficult for students to understand. This study examined the effectiveness of task-based learning (TBL) in enhancing the students' conceptual understanding of the Patterns of Mendelian Genetics. A pretest and posttest quasi-experimental research design involved an experimental and a control group. An Intrinsic Motivation Inventory questionnaire was utilized to assess the level of intrinsic motivation for task evaluation for the experimental group. Paired t-test was used to compare the pretest and post-test results. Before the intervention, both groups had a low conceptual understanding of the topic. At the end of the intervention, both groups had significantly increased their performances from pretest to posttest scores. The study revealed that TBL is more effective than Traditional Lecture-Based Instruction (TLI), as seen in their enhanced student performance, implying the effectiveness of the TBL as an innovative instructional approach. Participants from the experimental group expressed enjoyment, competence, and ownership of their task activities, and they did not feel nervous and anxious about doing the tasks. Pearson r-correlation was used to establish a relationship among the variables. Perceived choice, pressure/tension, and student performance in the experimental group have low positive correlations, and perceived choice, interest/enjoyment, and performance have a negligible correlation. This approach is highly commendable for biology instruction. By illuminating the effectiveness of active learning in improving student's conceptual understanding, this study bridges the gap between theoretical-practical gap in genetics via active learning effectiveness.

Spanish is the second most spoken language in the United States and the most taught additional language (L2) in elementary-level schools. However, the amount and type of access differs according to the resources available. Rural settings, which comprise a third of all schools in the US, often have fewer resources and support for the development and maintenance of exposure-track L2 programs, which meet once per week with the goal of, as the name suggests, providing exposure to the L2, rather than a focus on cumulative language development. Given that there are immediate and long-term benefits of even low levels of early bilingualism, ensuring access to quality L2 education is a matter of equity. This paper centers on the first year of a longitudinal collaboration between an exposure-track Spanish language teacher in a rural elementary school, and the research team who created a task-based program tailored for the school following a needs analysis. We analyze the first year of the grant-funded program based on task effectiveness, student enjoyment, and teacher perspectives. We contextualize results within the rural community and offer initial longitudinal data on US exposure-track Spanish. We detail how we adjusted the program for the second year, are freely sharing the materials on the Task Bank (tblt.indiana.edu) and have transferred the program to the teacher's autonomy. Finally, we highlight that the success of this program was and is due to the collaborative nature of the partnership between the teacher, the researchers, and the administrators.

The use of Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) approaches in English as Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms has recently gained special attention. In the context of Bangladesh, "English for Academic Purposes," a contextualized TBLT module prepared jointly by British Council and University Grant Commission Bangladesh, was piloted in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses in private universities in Bangladesh. This study explores TBLT and CLIL teachers' perceptions regarding feedback and how the success of TBLT and CLIL relates to providing feedback to the students of a large English class at the tertiary level. A mixed-method research design was adopted, including a questionnaire(n=50) and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) (n=10) as research instruments among the English teachers at different universities. The results indicated that the classroom teachers as research participants were positive about providing corrective feedback to learners' tasks in TBLT and CLIL classes. The participating teachers suggest some feasible and plausible ways and strategies to provide effective feedback to the students of a large English class.

This study represents the inaugural attempt at assessing the authenticity of the tasks encompassed in the IELTS Speaking Module. The evaluation is conducted from the vantage points of applied linguistics and general education, and serves to enhance comprehension of authenticity and authentic assessment. In order to achieve this objective, an analysis was conducted on the Speaking Module tasks using Bachman and Palmer's model of test usefulness from the discipline of applied linguistics, as well as Herrington and Herrington's inventory of the fundamental attributes of genuine assessment from the realm of general education. The results of both task analyses revealed low indices of authenticity of the tasks. The high degree of convergence of the results from the analyses could open new horizons for experts in applied linguistics to exchange ideas about authentic language assessment with those in general education. Furthermore, such characteristics as problem-solving skills, higher-order thinking skills, integrated assessment, and multiple indicators of learning, are not included in Bachman and Palmer's framework.

The idea of "threshold concepts" has been used to identify discipline-based concepts that are critical to that academic area. Threshold concepts are often difficult for students to assimilate in a meaningful way but, once done, can be powerful for the learner. In general, threshold concepts are 1) transformative to learner thinking; 2) bounded by the discipline; 3) integrative with other concepts; and 4) irreversible once understood (Meyer and Land 2003). This paper presents five threshold concepts in quantitative reasoning (QR) developed by transdisciplinary faculty workgroups that may be applicable for non-mathematics disciplines as well. They are as follows: 1) QR is an iterative process; 2) Abstract patterns can represent relationships between variables or objects; 3) There is a bidirectional translation between the concrete and the abstract; 4) Effective comparison depends on proportional reasoning; and 5) Different visual representations can communicate varying perspectives on the same quantitative information. The purpose of this paper is twofold: to explore and justify the proposed concepts as threshold concepts in QR-based courses and to offer practical examples which might assist students in developing and understanding these proposed threshold concepts.

It is asserted that task-based instruction improves the environment and makes it easier to teach English. Due to this, many EF language teachers and syllabus developers have recently turned their attention to task-based language education. With a focus on Business English instruction in Moroccan universities, this study examined ESP (English for Specific Purposes) teaching within the paradigm of task-based language teaching. For that purpose, information from a total of 234 students and 21 teachers was gathered using questionnaires. First, questionnaires were created to gather learners' opinions on the impact of the given assignments on their language development, learning processes, and skill acquisition. This study also tried to investigate how instructors felt about using a task-based approach in ESP classes. The findings indicate that both students and instructors have positive opinions and attitudes concerning (TBLT).They believed that the inclusion of this method, specifically ESP, in language instruction creates favorable teaching and learning conditions because it engages students in tasks that are pertinent to their academic and professional needs. As a result, it is advised to use a task-based approach over an extended length of time and in a manner that is most appropriate while taking into account the talents of different students in a specific classroom.

Second language (L2) writing researchers have enthusiastically adopted task complexity frameworks in their examination of the effects of complex task features on L2 written performance. However, such research often overlooks the effect(s) of such features on general L2 development as well as L2 writing development. Drawing from Manch?n and William's (2016) perspective of writing as a mechanism for language development, this paper (a) presents a critical review of L2 writing research informed by task-based language teaching and conceptions of task complexity and (b) argues for expanded L2 writing research on task complexity and its effect on L2 production as well as the ways in which complex task features facilitate attention to language, and thus general L2 development, and L2 writing development. Future research is suggested in light of a discussion of research trends to date.

This text critically examines traditional methodologies for teaching grammar in the context of Portuguese as a Foreign Language (PFL). It proposes an alternative, eclectic approach, which can be used in any foreign language. Drawing on evidence from research and pedagogical practices, it highlights areas for improvement in current approaches, such as the decontextualization of linguistic structures and insufficient gradual progression in exercises. The paper suggests a teaching framework based on Motivating-Grammaring-Applying (MGA), aiming to embed grammar learning in meaningful, communicative contexts and develop grammatical proficiency beyond mere rule memorization. The MGA model foregrounds the importance of authentic texts, student-centric discovery learning, and the application of learned structures in diverse communicative tasks. The paper further emphasizes the potential of digital tools and the importance of integrating grammar learning with other linguistic and cultural skills. Ultimately, this study encourages PFL teachers to diversify their pedagogical strategies and reconsider the role of grammar teaching in language learning, aiming at empowering students for effective communication in real-world contexts.

The conception of functions, defined as the relationship between magnitudes or sets of ordered pairs, varies among students depending on the contextualization of the concept within the curriculum, notably in school textbooks. This investigation endeavors to scrutinize the approach taken by Indonesian textbooks in introducing the function concept at the lower secondary school level. An eighth-grade mathematics textbook was scrutinized utilizing praxeology, the fundamental construct of the Anthropological Theory of the Didactic. The analytical process unfolded in three main phases: examination of the praxis block, analysis of the logos block, and evaluation of the textbook's praxeological structure in collaboration with experts and educators. The examination revealed that the Indonesian textbook organizes functions into three distinct local praxeological frameworks: functions as sets, bijective functions, and functions as relationships between magnitudes. The praxis primarily emphasizes tasks and techniques for functions formulated by sets, shaping the landscape of function learning in Indonesia. Consequently, a notable epistemological gap within logos stems from the disparity between two conceptions of functions: functions as sets and analytical expressions. These findings underscore the necessity for an alternative praxeological arrangement of functions, mainly to bridge the divide between the set-theoretical definition and the analytical expression of a function.

This study examines the effect of native "vs." non-native prosody instruction on developing interpreter trainees' speech comprehensibility in English as a foreign language (EFL) using a pretest-posttest-delayed posttest design. Twenty-three groups of 28 interpreter trainees at a University in Iran (six different branches) took part in the study, all groups receiving the same amount of instruction (9 hours over 3 weeks). Three control groups listened to/viewed authentic audio recordings and movies in English, discussed their contents, and completed a variety of speaking tasks but received no specific prosody instruction. Twenty experimental groups spent part of the instruction time on theoretical explanation of, and practical exercises with, English prosody by thirteen nonnative instructors, and seven native instructors. Three experts evaluated the comprehensibility of the trainees in elicited speech samples collected during the pretest, immediate posttest and delayed posttest, and subsequently presented in random order. The findings revealed that the experimental groups gained between 1 and 2 points on the 0 to 10 comprehensibility scale, and lost little in the delayed posttest; however, hardly any changes were observed in the control groups. We conclude that native and non-native English instructors' prosody teaching were equally effective in enhancing EFL students' speech comprehensibility.

Textbooks are one of the main resources for teaching and learning mathematics. This study examines the presentation of angle topics in 4th-grade mathematics textbooks in Indonesia and Singapore. The analysis focused on the general characteristics of the textbook and the nature of the mathematical tasks presented. The results showed that Indonesian mathematics textbooks are more likely to provide a more ample opportunity to learn than Singaporean textbooks based on the number and description of task activities. However, the distribution of items in each task activity in Singapore mathematics textbooks is more proportionate than in Indonesian mathematics textbooks. Concerning mathematical tasks, the findings show that the form of representation in Indonesian mathematics textbooks contains a more purely mathematical form, while Singapore's mathematics textbooks are dominated by visual form. Regarding contextual features, mathematical tasks in Indonesian and Singaporean mathematics textbooks are dominated by non-application forms. Closed tasks also dominate the response type of task for both textbooks. The implications of this finding can be applied to classroom teaching activities, as highlighted in the discussion section.

This study aims to investigate pre-service teachers' integration of technology and how the integration of technology influences the level of cognitive demands of the mathematics tasks in their mathematics technology activities. The purpose of this study was to investigate the various levels of cognitive demands of mathematical tasks created or modified by pre-service mathematics teachers for technology activities. This study presents case studies of pre-service teachers chosen from a group of participants, and these PSTs come from a variety of backgrounds. Showcase Portfolios and lesson plans were gathered in order to comprehend the selection/creation of mathematical tasks and how they were intended to be implemented in the classroom by PSTs. This study offers suggestions for teacher preparation to integrate technology into mathematics instruction in ways that support students' learning through a review of results, the cognitive demands of mathematical tasks in PSTs' technology activities.

Language proficiency diagnosis is essential to extract fine-grained information about the linguistic knowledge states and skill mastery levels of test takers based on their performance on language tests. Different from comprehensive standardized tests, many language learning apps often revolve around word-level questions. Therefore, knowledge concepts and linguistic skills are hard to define, and diagnosis must be well-designed. Traditional approaches are widely applied for modeling knowledge in science or mathematics, where skills or knowledge concepts are easy to associate with each item. However, only a few works focus on defining knowledge concepts and skills using linguistic characteristics for language knowledge proficiency diagnosis. In addressing this, we propose a framework for language proficiency diagnosis based on neural networks. Specifically, we propose a series of methods based on our framework that uses different linguistic features to define skills and knowledge concepts in the context of the language learning task. Experimental results on a real-world second-language learning dataset demonstrate the effectiveness and interpretability of our framework. We also provide empirical evidence with comprehensive experiments and analysis to prove that our knowledge concept and skill definitions are reasonable and critical to the performance of our model.

This study investigates school-age children's arithmetic operations performance while solving larger-size problems which produces interferences in memory. Complex problems can trigger competing responses in working memory, which are irrelevant to a task goal and increase the likelihood of interference from previously learned problems (De Visscher et al., 2018). Interference control in working memory is required to be able to manage and suppress irrelevant information while performing cognitive tasks such as arithmetic problem-solving (Unsworth, 2010). The present study explores potential cognitive processes while performing arithmetic tasks and emphasizes the important role of interference control for better performance in such tasks. This study applied a mixed-effect model experimental design. Forty-four primary school children were involved in the study. The results showed that children's performance in terms of correct responses was similar for both small-size and large-size problems. However, their response speed was significantly lower in larger-size problems, which created more interference in working memory.