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Avian nests are fundamental structures in avian reproduction and face strong selective forces. Climatic conditions are likely to have shaped the evolution of specific nest traits, but evidence is scarce at a macroevolutionary level. The Thraupidae family (commonly known as tanagers) is an ideal clade to understand the link between nest architecture and climate because it presents wide variation in nest traits. To understand whether climatic variables have played a role in the diversification of nest traits among species in this family, we measured nests from 49 species using museum collections. We observed that dome‐nesting species are present in dryer and hotter environments, in line with previous findings suggesting that domed nests are a specialisation for arid conditions. We also found evidence that nests with thicker walls are present in locations with lower precipitation and that solar radiation can influence the shape of domed nests; birds tend to build shorter and narrower domes in areas with high levels of solar radiation. Open nest architecture is also potentially influenced by wind speed, with longer and deeper nests in areas characterised by strong winds. Our results support the hypothesis that different climatic variables can drive the evolution of specific aspects of nest architecture and contribute to the diversity of nest shapes we currently observe. However, climatic variables account only for a small fraction of the observed structural variation, leaving a significant portion still unexplained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We assessed correlations between speciation rate and bill morphology in an ecologically diverse and continental-scale songbird radiation, the tanagers (Thraupidae). Our analyses showed that bill size, shape, and their evolutionary rates are not correlated with speciation rate. However, we did find evidence that each axis of variation in bill morphology diversifies at speciation events interspersed with periods of gradual evolution, consistent with a punctuated equilibrium model of character change. To determine correlations, we incorporated a time-calibrated molecular phylogeny and high-resolution three-dimensional surface scans of bill structure from museum study skins. Overall, our findings suggest that bill size and shape diversify in association with the speciation process, but not through any effect on the rate of speciation. Previous studies have shown other traits, such as song, ecological niche, and plumage do influence speciation and, ultimately, species richness in tanagers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Avian nests are fundamental structures in avian reproduction and face strong selective forces. Climatic conditions are likely to have shaped the evolution of specific nest traits, but evidence is scarce at a macroevolutionary level. The Thraupidae family (commonly known as tanagers) is an ideal clade to understand the link between nest architecture and climate because it presents wide variation in nest traits. To understand whether climatic variables have played a role in the diversification of nest traits among species in this family, we measured nests from 49 species using museum collections. We observed that dome‐nesting species are present in dryer and hotter environments, in line with previous findings suggesting that domed nests are a specialisation for arid conditions. We also found evidence that nests with thicker walls are present in locations with lower precipitation and that solar radiation can influence the shape of domed nests; birds tend to build shorter and narrower domes in areas with high levels of solar radiation. Open nest architecture is also potentially influenced by wind speed, with longer and deeper nests in areas characterised by strong winds. Our results support the hypothesis that different climatic variables can drive the evolution of specific aspects of nest architecture and contribute to the diversity of nest shapes we currently observe. However, climatic variables account only for a small fraction of the observed structural variation, leaving a significant portion still unexplained.

We document from the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the first record of Microspingus cinereus (Bonaparte, 1850), which was observed in the municipality of Barra Mansa in October 2020. The species was originally documented in central Brazil, potentially linked to Cerrado habitats. However, recent observations from eBird and WikiAves databases indicate that M. cinereus has been spreading towards the southeast for several years. It has been considered Vulnerable for almost two decades due to the loss of grassland habitats. Our discovery expands the known geographic range of M. cinereus to eastern Brazil and may have importance for future biogeographic studies and the conservation of this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although convergence is a common evolutionary phenomenon, few studies have quantified its prevalence across a large, densely sampled clade. Large-scale phylogenies and the advent of novel computational methods facilitate more robust identification of convergent events and their statistical significance. The tanagers (Aves: Thraupidae), the largest family of songbirds, offer an excellent opportunity to study the extent of phenotypic convergence in response to similar ecological pressures on a continental scale. To investigate convergence in the group, we used the largest phylogenetic and multivariate morphological dataset to date for the clade. First, we used phylogenetic comparative analyses to show a correlation between diet and aspects of bill shape. We then investigated our dataset for the presence and magnitude of convergent events and assessed significance through simulations and modeling analyses. Overall, we found that around half (45.3%) of species and clades we tested have converged in morphological space more than would be expected by chance alone. Our study shows that across Thraupidae, various bill shapes have evolved convergently to fill multiple distinct sections of ecological niche space, reflecting a signal of ecological opportunity and structural constraints. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Darwin's finches are the most classic case of evolution. Early studies on the evolution of this species were mainly based on morphology. Until now, the mitochondrial genome of Geospiza magnirostris has been sequenced and the study explored the characteristics of the complete genome of G. magnirostris and verified the evolutionary position of it. The 13 PCGs initiated by ATN codons. The stop codons of three PCGs (ND2, COX3 and ND4) were incomplete, with only T- or TA- replacing complete form TAA or TAG. All the tRNA genes expressed a typical cloverleaf secondary structure, except for tRNASer1(AGY), whose dihydrouridine (DHU) arm was lack and instead with a simple loop. In the sequence of the control region of G. magnirostris, we found six simple repeat tandem sequences with a total length of 42 bp. Two characteristic conserved overlapping junction (ATGCTAA) and (CAAGAAAG) were observed as reported for eight selected Passeriformes birds. A special conserved overlapping junction (ATCTTACC) involved in mitochondrial transcription termination was found between tRNATyr and COX1 in G. magnirostris's control region. Four most frequently used amino acids in G. magnirostris's PCGs were Leu1 (CUN), Ile, Thr, Ala. The codon usage of G. magnirostris was relatively average, and there was no particular bias. The ratio Ka/Ks results showed that G. magnirostris receives less natural selection pressure. The phylogenetic relationships and cluster analysis of relative codon usage showed that G. magnirostris and Thraupis episcopus clustered in one branch. The phylogenetic position of G. magnirostris was consistent with the traditional taxonomic of Thraupis. The results supported the conclusion that G. magnirostris belongs to the morphological classification of the family Thraupidae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sexual dichromatism, a particular type of sexual dimorphism, occurs in several species and has been associated with sexual selection. In some cases, the differences are so small that they are imperceptible to humans, but possibly detected by birds. The objective measurement of color with spectrophotometers and detailed analyses according to the perception ability of the avian eye have revealed that some species that were once considered to be monochromatic, are in fact dichromatic and able to perceive these differences. In the tropics, the Saffron Finch (Sicalis flaveola) does not present marked sexual dimorphism in coloration, which makes studies in behavioral ecology, natural history and population dynamics difficult. To assess whether there is dichromatism in the species, the reflectance (between 300 and 700 ​nm) of ten body regions was measured in 196 wild adults in Cali-Colombia. Sex was determined using the CHD1 gene on the sex chromosomes. Reflectance spectra were analyzed using: colorimetric variables and the avian visual model. We found that reflectance shows a bimodal curve in all body regions, except the crown. Males presented higher reflectance at long wavelengths, while for females this occurred in ultraviolet wavelengths. For the visual model, we found that there are significant intrasexual differences; however only in crown coloration is there a possible perceived difference between sexes. We conclude that in the Saffron Finch there are color differences between the sexes in all regions considering the physical phenomenon (reflectance), but in general, when evaluating color perception (avian visual model), there are no differences between the sexes in most of the body regions. The intrasexual differences are significant, indicating the possibility of these being signals that influence social interactions in the species.

Abstract Darwin's finches are a classic example of adaptive radiation, a process by which multiple ecologically distinct species rapidly evolve from a single ancestor. Such evolutionary diversification is typically explained by adaptation to new ecological opportunities. However, the ecological diversification of Darwin's finches following their dispersal to Galápagos was not matched on the same archipelago by other lineages of colonizing land birds, which diversified very little in terms of both species number and morphology. To better understand the causes underlying the extraordinary variation in Darwin's finches, we analyze the evolutionary dynamics of speciation and trait diversification in Thraupidae, including Coerebinae (Darwin's finches and relatives) and, their closely related clade, Sporophilinae. For all traits, we observe an early pulse of speciation and morphological diversification followed by prolonged periods of slower steady‐state rates of change. The primary exception is the apparent recent increase in diversification rate in Darwin's finches coupled with highly variable beak morphology, a potential key factor explaining this adaptive radiation. Our observations illustrate how the exploitation of ecological opportunity by contrasting means can produce clades with similarly high diversification rate yet strikingly different degrees of ecological and morphological differentiation.

Consumption of the berries of two exotic bush honeysuckles (genus Lonicera) containing the red carotenoid pigment rhodoxanthin has resulted in abnormal erythristic plumages in several species of birds in eastern North America. Here we report 12 examples of plumage erythrism in the Western Tanager (Piranga ludoviciana), in both live birds (5) and museum specimens (7), that we suspect have the same etiology. The erythristic tanagers feature overtly orange to red feathers variously scattered on the head, rump, wing coverts, and/or underparts, areas of the plumage normally colored by carotenoid pigments. All were in their year of hatching, so the reddened feathers, including replaced median coverts with orange tips, represent formative plumage grown on or near the breeding grounds where berries containing rhodoxanthin are available. By contrast, adult Western Tanagers undergo body molt primarily in the Mexican monsoon region in fall and on their winter grounds in early spring where bush honeysuckles are nonexistent. We also report examples of Red-breasted Sapsuckers (Sphyrapicus ruber) with anomalous red pigmentation on their backs and of Cedar Waxwings (Bombycilla cedrorum) with orange tail bands, as previously documented in the East. In these species, the reddened areas are typically yellow or green, colors based on carotenoid pigments that can be altered through the consumption of fruits containing rhodoxanthin. We conclude that these reddened feathers are the result of the consumption of honeysuckle berries or possibly the red arils of the Pacific Yew (Taxus brevifolia), representing a first report of diet-related erythrism in western North America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geographically connected species pairs with weakly differentiated genomes could either represent cases of genomic homogenization in progress or of incipient parapatric speciation. Discriminating between these processes is difficult because intermediate stages of either may produce weakly differentiated genomes that diverge at few locations. We used coalescent modelling applied to a genome‐wide sample of SNPs to discriminate between speciation with gene flow and genomic homogenization in two phenotypically distinct but genomically weakly diverged species of elevationally replacing Ramphocelus tanagers, forming a hybrid zone in the Andean foothills. We found overwhelming support for a model of genomic homogenization following secondary contact. Simulating under this model suggested that our species pair was differentiated (FST = 0.30) at secondary contact but that most of the genome has rapidly homogenized during 254 Ky of high gene flow towards the present (FST = 0.02). Despite extensive genome‐wide homogenization, plumage remains distinctive with a narrower than expected geographic cline width, indicating divergent selection on colour. We found two SNPs significantly associated with plumage colour, which retain moderately high FST. We conclude that the majority of the genome has fused, but that divergent selection on select loci probably maintains the geographically structured colour differences between these incipient species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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We describe a colorful and distinctive new species of tanager from the lower slopes of the Andes of southeastern Peru and western Bolivia. The species was first noted from southeastern Peru in 2000, but little of its natural history was uncovered until the 2011 discovery of a breeding population in deciduous forest in an intermontane valley, the Machariapo valley, in Bolivia. This species appears to be an intratropical migrant, breeding in deciduous forest during the rainy season (November-March) and spending the dry season dispersed along the lower slopes of the Andes, apparently favoring Guadua bamboo-dominated habitats in both seasons. Phylogenetic evidence suggests this tanager is embedded within a clade of thraupids that includes Ramphocelus, Coryphospingus, Loriotus, Tachyphonus, and related genera in the subfamily Tachyphoninae. Within this subfamily, the new species falls in a clade with two monotypic genera, Eucometis penicillata (Gray-headed Tanager) and Trichothraupis melanops (Black-goggled Tanager). There is strong support for a sister relationship between the new tanager and T. melanops, but because all three species in this clade are highly distinctive phenotypically, we propose erecting a new genus and species name for the new tanager. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the 2021 Maryland Mid-winter Bird Count, covering participating counties, bird observations, and weather conditions. It summarizes the count's data, highlighting the number of species observed, types of birds, observation methods, and the presence of unexpected species, including a Western Tanager in Howard County and a Painted Bunting in Frederick County.

Mixed-species flocks constitute community modules that can help test mechanisms driving changes to community composition across environmental gradients. Here, we examined elevational patterns of flock diversity (species richness, taxonomic diversity, species, and guild composition) and asked if these patterns were reflections of the full bird community at a given elevation (open-membership hypothesis), or if they were instead structured by environmental variables. We surveyed both the overall avian community and mixed-species flocks across an undisturbed elevational gradient (~1,350–3,550 m) in the Bolivian Andes. We then tested for the role of temperature (a surrogate for abiotic stress), resource diversity (arthropods, fruits), and foraging niche diversity (vegetation vertical complexity) in structuring these patterns. Patterns for the overall and flocking communities were similar, supporting our open-membership hypothesis that Andean flocks represent dynamic, unstructured aggregations. Membership openness and the resulting flock composition, however, also varied with elevation in response to temperature and vegetation complexity. We found a mid-elevation peak in flock species richness, size, and Shannon’s diversity at ~2,300 m. The transition of flocking behavior toward a more open-membership system at this elevation may explain a similar peak in the proportion of insectivores joining flocks. At high elevations, increasing abiotic stress and decreasing fruit diversity led more generalist, gregarious tanagers (Thraupidae) to join flocks, resulting in larger yet more even flocks alongside a loss of vegetation structure. At lower elevations, flock species richness increased with greater vegetation complexity, but a greater diversity of foraging niches resulted in flocks that were more segregated into separate canopy and understory sub-types. This segregation likely results from increased costs of interspecific competition and activity matching (i.e., constraints on movement and foraging rate) for insectivores. Mid-elevation flocks (~2,300 m) seemed, therefore, to benefit from both the open-membership composition of high-elevation flocks and the high vegetation complexity of mid- and low-elevation forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brilliantly-colored birds are a model system for research into evolution and sexual selection. Red, orange, and yellow carotenoid-colored plumages have been considered honest signals of condition; however, sex differences in feather pigments and microstructures are not well understood. Here, we show that microstructures, rather than carotenoid pigments, seem to be a major driver of male–female color differences in the social, sexually-dimorphic tanager genus Ramphocelus. We comprehensively quantified feather (i) color (using spectrophotometry), (ii) pigments (using liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS)), and (iii) microstructures (using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) optical modeling). Males have significantly more saturated color patches than females. However, our exploratory analysis of pigments suggested that males and females have concordant carotenoid pigment profiles across all species (MCMCglmm model, female:male ratio = 0.95). Male, but not female, feathers have elaborate microstructures which amplify color appearance. Oblong, expanded feather barbs in males enhance color saturation (for the same amount of pigment) by increasing the transmission of optical power through the feather. Dihedral barbules (vertically-angled, strap-shaped barbules) in males reduce total reflectance to generate "super black" and "velvet red" plumage. Melanin in females explains some, but not all, of the male–female plumage differences. Our results suggest that a widely cited index of honesty, carotenoid pigments, cannot fully explain male appearance. We propose that males are selected to evolve amplifiers—in this case, microstructures that enhance appearance—that are not necessarily themselves linked to quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Darwin's finches are a classic example of adaptive radiation, a process by which multiple ecologically distinct species rapidly evolve from a single ancestor. Such evolutionary diversification is typically explained by adaptation to new ecological opportunities. However, the ecological diversification of Darwin's finches following their dispersal to Galápagos was not matched on the same archipelago by other lineages of colonizing land birds, which diversified very little in terms of both species number and morphology. To better understand the causes underlying the extraordinary variation in Darwin's finches, we analyze the evolutionary dynamics of speciation and trait diversification in Thraupidae, including Coerebinae (Darwin's finches and relatives) and, their closely related clade, Sporophilinae. For all traits, we observe an early pulse of speciation and morphological diversification followed by prolonged periods of slower steady‐state rates of change. The primary exception is the apparent recent increase in diversification rate in Darwin's finches coupled with highly variable beak morphology, a potential key factor explaining this adaptive radiation. Our observations illustrate how the exploitation of ecological opportunity by contrasting means can produce clades with similarly high diversification rate yet strikingly different degrees of ecological and morphological differentiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Short wavelength visual sensitivity in birds is determined mostly by the type of photopigment present in the short-wavelength sensitive cone 1 (SWS1) which varies between clades and takes two main forms: the violet sensitive type (VS) and ultraviolet sensitive type (UVS). The common ancestor of passerines is thought to have been UVS, but there were at least 8 transitions between both types of visual sensitivity, even within species of the same family (Maluridae). The type of visual system a species has is a key parameter of avian visual models employed to describe chromatic visual perception and assess if colour differences are discernible by birds. Cardinalidae and Thraupidae together include more than 400 very diverse species that were model organisms in many bird colouration studies. However, visual sensitivity has been characterised for only one species of each of these families so far. Here, we obtained partial genetic sequences of the SWS1 opsin gene that determines the spectral sensitivity of the photopigment for a phylogenetically broad species sample of these families. All cardinals and tanagers studied here have SWS1 sequences corresponding with UVS sensitivity, suggesting that this character is conserved in these bird families despite their highly diverse range of plumage colours and habitat types. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although evolutionary theory predicts an association between the evolution of elaborate ornamentation and speciation, empirical evidence for links between speciation and ornament evolution has been mixed. In birds, the evolution of increasingly complex and colorful plumage may promote speciation by introducing prezygotic mating barriers. However, overall changes in color complexity, including both increases and decreases, may also promote speciation by altering the sexual signals that mediate reproductive choices. Here, we examine the relationship between complex plumage and speciation rates in the largest family of songbirds, the tanagers (Thraupidae). First, we test whether species with more complex plumage coloration are associated with higher speciation rates and find no correlation. We then test whether rates of male or female plumage color complexity evolution are correlated with speciation rates. We find that elevated rates of plumage complexity evolution are associated with higher speciation rates, regardless of sex and whether species are evolving more complex or less complex ornamentation. These results extend to whole‐plumage color complexity and regions important in signaling (crown and throat) but not nonsignaling regions (back and wingtip). Our results suggest that the extent of change in plumage traits, rather than overall values of plumage complexity, may play a role in speciation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the results of a study on the migratory behavior and molting of Warbling Vireo and Western Tanager during the fall season in Southern California. Topics mentioned include the occurrence of prebasic molt annually before or after bird migration, the differences in age classes of bird species, and the factors that may contribute to the atypical molt of bird specimens.

The dissection of the mode and tempo of phenotypic evolution is integral to our understanding of global biodiversity. Our ability to infer patterns of phenotypes across phylogenetic clades is essential to how we infer the macroevolutionary processes governing those patterns. Many methods are already available for fitting models of phenotypic evolution to data. However, there is currently no comprehensive nonparametric framework for characterizing and comparing patterns of phenotypic evolution. Here, we build on a recently introduced approach for using the phylogenetic spectral density profile (SDP) to compare and characterize patterns of phylogenetic diversification, in order to provide a framework for nonparametric analysis of phylogenetic trait data. We show how to construct the SDP of trait data on a phylogenetic tree from the normalized graph Laplacian. We demonstrate on simulated data the utility of the SDP to successfully cluster phylogenetic trait data into meaningful groups and to characterize the phenotypic patterning within those groups. We furthermore demonstrate how the SDP is a powerful tool for visualizing phenotypic space across traits and for assessing whether distinct trait evolution models are distinguishable on a given empirical phylogeny. We illustrate the approach in two empirical data sets: a comprehensive data set of traits involved in song, plumage, and resource-use in tanagers, and a high-dimensional data set of endocranial landmarks in New World monkeys. Considering the proliferation of morphometric and molecular data collected across the tree of life, we expect this approach will benefit big data analyses requiring a comprehensive and intuitive framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe new records of Trichothraupis melanops in five municipalities of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The birds were detected in sporadic expeditions in the Serra do Sudeste and Campanha Gaúcha regions by direct visualization and vocal recognition. One of these records, next to the border with Uruguay, is the southernmost known location for the species in Brazil. This record expands the geographic range of the species in Brazil south by 170 km. We believe that these occurrences are seasonal displacements and do not represent a colonization front with resident populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many traits influence birdsong diversity. Patterns observed in the acoustic parameters can be a result of morphological constraint and can also be explained by phylogenetic relationships. Understanding morphologic mechanisms that can act on song structure might account how they can catalyze speciation and how they evolve in lineages sort. We analyzed the evolution of beak volume and song constraints in "finch-like" species of Neotropical seedeaters. We tested if beak volume limits the song structure of territorial songs, based on differences in the beaks of 19 species from the genus Sporophila (Thraupidae, tanagers). We also tested (1) if body size constrained song structure, and (2) if beak volume and body size were related to each other. The relationship of song parameters (e.g. maximum and minimum frequencies, frequency bandwidth and note rate) to these two morphological variables was evaluated through an analysis which phylogenetic relations were controlled (PGLS), testing a null and Brownian model. To perform a faithful analysis between morphologic and acoustic parameters, our data was based on measurements of the beak and territorial song for each individual that we analyzed. None of the analyzed parameters was related to beak volume or body mass, and beak volume was not associated with body mass. Beak volume, note rate, and minimum frequency showed a phylogenetic signal. These results do not support the theoretically motivated prediction that beak size acts as a limit on song structure in oscine birds. The shape and variations of song in Sporophila tanagers (Seedeaters) may be a consequence of the species' phylogenetic history, since the seedeaters showed wide plasticity in many acoustic parameters, unrelated to their beak volume and body mass. Song structure was better explained by the evolutionary relationships among the species than by morphological constraints. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Empirical descriptions of vocal behaviour in avian communication are important in understanding its meaning and role in shaping the social and genetic relationships among individuals in a population. In this study, we provide the first detailed analysis of the vocal behaviour of the Saffron Finch (Sicalis flaveola pelzelni), a neotropical songbird found in rural and semi-open areas of Argentina that is frequently captured for the pet trade. We identify syllables, quantify the fine structural characteristics of the song, and describe the size and structure of the song repertoire. Further, we use networks to explore whether this species uses syntactical rules for creating their songs. Our analyses reveal that Saffron Finch males have a large syllable repertoire. Song repertoire size is not fixed, and birds recombine their syllables to produce highly variable songs. In addition, they sing with immediate variety, seldom repeating a song before switching to a new song and song sharing was very limited among our sampled individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theory predicts that, even within the same population, birds may vary their breeding investment with age. This may be due to an improvement in individual quality of old birds in body condition, foraging and in nesting experience. Birds commonly signal age and individual quality to potential mates and competitors through plumage colour. Young male and female breeders of Saffron Finches (Sicalis flaveola) have dull plumages that change to yellow with age. We asked whether older, yellow birds are in better condition and invest more in breeding than dull, younger birds. In southern Brazil, we monitored Saffron Finches breeding in nest-boxes over three breeding seasons. We found that yellow birds were in better condition: females had more furcular fat and males were heavier. Yellow parents bred earlier, had larger clutch sizes, shorter incubation periods, re-nested more and ultimately fledged twice as many offspring as dull parents. Egg mass, nestling mass and nest survival probability were similar between plumage colours. Female colour predicted clutch sizes and incubation periods better than male colour. Our results highlight the importance of accounting for female quality and reproductive investment decisions within the context of sexual selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Lanio is distributed from southern Mexico to northern Brazil. Until now, nesting information has been limited and scattered among Lanio species. Nests descriptions are available for 3 of the 4 species, and only L. versicolor has nestling descriptions. No information is available on incubation and feeding behavior or incubation and nestling periods for any Lanio species. We present detailed nesting biology information for L. versicolor, such as incubation and nestling behavior, eggs and nest thermal dynamics, and nestling feeding behavior, and also present the first evidence of cooperative breeding for the genus Lanio based on 11 nests monitored in the buffer zone of Manu National Park, Cusco, Peru. Nests were cup-shaped, and all had a leaf located above the nest. The clutch size was 2 eggs, white with maroon or wine-colored spots covering the shell surface. Incubation and nestling periods were 15 and 11 d, respectively, and daytime nest attentiveness was 78%. Nest architecture, clutch size, and nestling period were consistent with previous reports for the genus Lanio. We found similarities in the nesting biology of Lanio spp. with other species of the Tachyphoninae subfamily. Our study significantly increases the information available for the genus Lanio and provides novel and important information of cooperative breeding for a Neotropical mixed-species flock "leader" species. Yet, more studies are needed to fill the large information gap on nesting of tropical birds such as the species in the genus Lanio. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Aims: Islands are widely recognized as natural laboratories for evolutionary studies, but many questions about evolution on islands remain unresolved. Here we address two general questions from a macroevolutionary perspective. First, do lineages on islands have increased diversification rates relative to mainland lineages? Second, does the same geographical context (e.g., same archipelago) have similar effects on diversification in unrelated groups? We focused on Darwin's finches and Galápagos tortoises, two endemic radiations from the Galápagos Islands, and the larger families in which they are embedded. Location: Global. Methods: We estimated a new time‐calibrated phylogeny for tortoises (Testudinidae). Then, we examined their macroevolutionary patterns and compared them to those of Darwin's finches and relatives (Thraupidae), using a published thraupid tree. Specifically, we estimated and compared diversification rates between islands and the mainland and between the Galapagos Islands and all other regions, using clade‐based and species‐based approaches. Results: Contrary to expectations, occurrence on islands in general did not significantly increase diversification rates in tanagers or tortoises. However, occurrence in the Galápagos Islands in particular was associated with increased speciation and diversification rates, and explained ~28% of the variation in diversification rates for thraupids and ~46% for testudinids. Both Darwin's finches and Galápagos tortoises were unique within each family in exhibiting the highest diversification rates. The congruence of these macroevolutionary patterns between both radiations supports a strong “place‐dependent” effect on diversification associated with the Galápagos. Finally, we found that Darwin's finches diversified ~2–8 times faster than Galápagos tortoises. Main conclusions: Our results show that occurring on islands in general did not increase diversification rates in these clades, but occurrence in the Galápagos did. We also show that dramatic local‐scale differences in diversification rates between clades in the Galápagos parallel global‐scale differences in diversification rates between these families and between birds and turtles overall. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The discovery of circular rep-encoding single stranded (CRESS) DNA viruses has increased spectacularly over the past decade. They represent the smallest animal viruses known worldwide infecting a wide variety of invertebrates and vertebrates in different natural and human-made environments. The extremely low similarity of nucleotide and protein sequences among different CRESS DNA genomes has challenged their classification. Moreover, the existence of capsid proteins (Cp) remains difficult to demonstrate which is crucial to understand the structural properties of these viruses. Here we describe two unclassified CRESS DNA viruses isolated from a cutaneous lesion, caused by a strain of Avipoxvirus , from a blue-and-gray tanager ( Thraupis episcopus ) in Southern Ecuador. Both viruses present replication-associated proteins (Rep) and one to two open reading frames (ORF), one of which represents a putative Cp. The two new Rep are long proteins characterized by the existence of the several highly conserved amino acid residues characteristic of rolling circle replication. Within the putative Cp we detected intrinsically disordered regions (IDR), potential protein and DNA binding regions, and nuclear localization signals (NLS), providing further evidence of presumed Cp. Despite being found on the same host lesion, both viruses show low similarity between each other (<60%) and other known CRESS DNA viruses. Furthermore, we analyze the evolutionary relationships within the CRESS DNA diversity. Additional sampling is needed to explore the possible pathogenic effects, prevalence and diversity (both phylogenetical and structural) of these viruses in wild bird populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Competition between closely related species has long been viewed as a powerful selective force that drives trait diversification, thereby generating phenotypic diversity over macroevolutionary timescales. However, although the impact of interspecific competition has been documented in a handful of iconic insular radiations, most previous studies have focused on traits involved in resource use, and few have examined the role of competition across large, continental radiations. Thus, the extent to which broad-scale patterns of phenotypic diversity are shaped by competition remain largely unclear, particularly for social traits. Here, we estimate the effect of competition between interacting lineages by applying new phylogenetic models that account for such interactions to an exceptionally complete dataset of resource-use traits and social signaling traits for the entire radiation of tanagers (Aves, Thraupidae), the largest family of songbirds. We find that interspecific competition strongly influences the evolution of traits involved in resource use, with a weaker effect on plumage signals, and very little effect on song. Our results provide compelling evidence that interspecific exploitative competition contributes to ecological trait diversification among coexisting species, even in a large continental radiation. In comparison, signal traits mediating mate choice and social competition seem to diversify under different evolutionary models, including rapid diversification in the allopatric stage of speciation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information on the effects of stochastic weather events on the survival of tropical birds can improve the knowledge of life history adaptations, allowing better demographic projection models to examine species persistence in light of global climate change forecasts. With this in mind, we conducted a mark-recapture study on Coryphospingus pileatus in the Brazilian Caatinga. We applied Cormack-Jolly-Seber and Robust Design models to test the influence of sex, precipitation, drought and vegetation on demographic parameters. We found that the apparent annual survival of residents ranged from 31 to 49% in the first year and 65–77% in the second, depending on the area, sex and structure of the models used. Controlling for an effect of time since marking, survival was substantially lower in a year affected by a severe drought, and was higher at a site with more open vegetation structure. The results showed little variation in survival of the species during the regular annual dry season and a decline greater than 50% in apparent survival caused by severe drought. This suggest that in prolonged drought the drastic reduction of food directly affects the productivity, reducing in survival observed over time and projecting a critical perspective for endangered species that may disappear due to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social monogamy with genetic polygamy is a frequent mating system in birds. In Passeriformes, extra-pair paternity (EPP) was reported in 86% of the studied species, with high variation in occurrence and frequency within and between species. In the highly diverse Neotropical region, the genetic mating system is known for only 26 bird species. We present the first molecular data on the genetic breeding system of the Ringed Warbling-finch Poospiza torquata, a socially monogamous species of the tanagers family (Thraupidae) that inhabits arid and semi-arid regions of South America. We obtained data from 92 nestlings belonging to 35 nests during three consecutive breeding seasons (2008-2011). Paternity assignments were made using five microsatellites developed for other bird species, and calculated using CERVUS v. 3.0. We found that extra-pair males sired 20.65% of the offspring in 42.86% of the broods. The EPP level in this species was found to be close to the average level in Thraupidae, with reported values ranging between 8-50% and 15-63% for nestlings and broods with EPP, respectively. This wide interspecific variation points to the ecological factors as being very important in facilitating EPP among Thraupidae species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new feather mite species,Proctophyllodes pirangaesp. n. (Acari: Proctophyllodidae) is described from two tanagers of the genusPirangaVieillot, 1808 (Passeriformes: Cardinalidae) in North America: the Scarlet Tanager,Piranga olivacea(Gmelin) and the Western Tanager,Piranga ludoviciana(Wilson) (Passeriformes: Cardinalidae) from North America. The new species belongs to theanthispecies group and differs from the most similar species,Proctophyllodes polyxenusAtyeo and Braasch, by having in males, the aedeagus and genital sheath extending to or slightly beyond the level of setaeg, the anterior margin of the opisthogastric shield shallowly concave, and its posterior margin nearly square-shaped, and the lamellae smaller; in females, both the lobar cleft and the transverse band of soft tegument at level of setaeh1are considerably narrower. www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:29B3D157-8114-48EC-AF31-61A99F6D0C3B [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding latitudinal variation in avian life-history traits has been a focus of many demographic studies around the world. However, we still know little about annual or intra-annual demographic variation within tropical regions or about how factors such as breeding season and precipitation influence demographic rates. In this study, we estimated intra-annual apparent survival of the White-lined Tanager (Tachyphonus rufus) using capture-mark-recapture data from northeastern Brazil. We tested whether survival varied seasonally (breeding vs. non-breeding), with rainfall, by age and residence status in our study area. Intra-annual apparent survival was correlated with the reproductive cycle, being lower during the breeding (0.65 ± 0.16 SE) vs. the non-breeding season (0.97 ± 0.05 SE). The annual apparent survival (~0.6) was relatively low for a tropical species. In both years, we observed highest abundance in spring (November, 3.1–3.7 birds/ha) and lowest abundance in autumn-winter periods (May-August, 1.1–1.4 bird/ha). The low survival during the breeding season probably reflects the trade-off between survival and reproduction and the cost of reproduction. Our findings represent an advance in the understanding of the demography of tropical birds because we did not find a predicted high annual apparent survival, and we elucidated some aspects of intra-annual variation in survival. Further exploration of latitudinal variation in demographic traits, especially in diverse, but poorly known habitats is needed to fully vet and develop life history theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Western Chat-Tanagers ( Calyptophilus tertius) are a rare and globally vulnerable songbird endemic to the island of Hispaniola. We conducted a radio-telemetry study of non-breeding Western Chat-Tanagers at two adjacent cloud forest sites in Sierra de Bahoruco in southwestern Dominican Republic during March and April of 2010. Male home ranges averaged 2.18 ± 0.25 ha in size ( n = 4) and were significantly larger than those of females (0.88 ± 0.04 ha; n = 2). However, core use areas did not differ significantly between the sexes. We assumed that males and females with overlapping home ranges were mated pairs. At night, two putative pairs roosted an average distance apart of 15.8 ± 3.5 m ( n = 7 observations). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Vegetarian Finch, Platyspiza crassirostris, is a relatively unstudied Darwin's finch that appears to be in decline in the Galapagos Islands. We monitored 11 nests of Vegetarian Finches during 2013 and 2014 on Santa Cruz Island, Galapagos, and found that 10 of these were infested with an invasive parasitic fly, Philornis downsi. This is the first report of P. downsi attacking this bird species. The number of P. downsi in nests of Vegetarian Finches was higher than for other Darwin's finch species, but nestling mortality was relatively low. We hypothesize that both of these trends may be related to fact that the Vegetarian Finch is one of the largest-bodied species of Darwin's finches. We also consider the conservation implications of P. downsi parasitism for populations of vegetarian finches and other Darwin's finch species in the Galapagos Islands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite 12 coccidian species had been recorded from passerines of the Thraupidae family, none of them has been reported in the Parque Nacional do Itatiaia, in Southeastern Brazil. This locality is a protected area with a high degree of vulnerability, and is considered a "conservation island" of biodiversity. The aim of the current work was describe Isospora ramphoceli Berto, Flausino, Luz, Ferreira, Lopes, 2010 from ruby-crowned tanagers Tachyphonus coronatus Vieillot, 1822 in the Parque Nacional do Itatiaia. The oocysts of I. ramphoceli are subspheroidal, 23.1 × 22.1 µm, with smooth, bilayered wall. Micropyle, oocyst residuum and polar granule are absent. Sporocysts are ellipsoidal or ovoidal, 16.2 × 10.8 µm. Stieda body is knob-like and substieda body is large and homogeneous. Sporocyst residuum is composed of many scattered granules. Sporozoites are vermiform with a posterior refractile body and a nucleus. In addition to new locality, this is the first description of I. ramphoceli from T. coronatus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Males and females can be under different evolutionary pressures if sexual and natural selection is differentially operating in each sex. As a result, many species have evolved sexual dichromatism, or differences in coloration between sexes. Although sexual dichromatism is often used as an index of the magnitude of sexual selection, sexual dichromatism is a composite trait. Here, we examine the evolution of sexual dichromatism in one of the largest and most ecologically diverse families of birds, the tanagers, using the avian visual perspective and a species-level phylogeny. Our results demonstrate that the evolutionary decreases of sexual dichromatism are more often associated with larger and more frequent changes in male plumage coloration, and evolutionary increases are not more often associated with larger changes in either sex. Furthermore, we show that the crown and ventral plumage regions are correlated with sexual dichromatism in males, and that only male plumage complexity is positively correlated with sexual dichromatism. Finally, we demonstrate that light environment is important in shaping both plumage brilliance and complexity. By conducting a multilevel analysis of plumage evolution in males and females, we show that sexual dichromatism evolves via a mosaic of sexual and natural selection in both sexes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The Buffy-fronted Seedeater, Sporophila frontalis (Verreaux, 1869) (Aves, Thraupidae), is a threatened passerine endemic to the Atlantic Forest of southeastern South America. Habitat loss and illegal capture for the pet trade has reduced the geographical distribution of this species. The Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul represents the southernmost limit of this species' range. There, S. frontalis was last recorded in 1883, and currently this species is thought to be as extirpated in this state. After 133 years, we report photographic and audiotape records of S. frontalis, made in the municipalities of Maquiné and Mampituba, Rio Grande do Sul. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Chlorospingus is distributed from central Mexico to northern Argentina. Despite its wide distribution, natural history information is sparse. We present the first detailed breeding biology information for C. flavigularis, plus descriptions of the nest, eggs, and other natural history information for C. parvirostris and C. flavopectus based on 26 nests monitored (22 from C. flavigularis, two from C. parvirostris, and two from C. flavopectus) in the buffer zone of Manu National Park, Cusco, Peru. Nests of C. flavigularis were bulky open-cups placed on a variety of substrates (e.g., ferns, moss). The clutch size of C. flavigularis varied between two to three eggs, but clutch size for C. flavopectus and C. parvirostris was consistently two eggs. The eggs of all three species were white with small light-brown speckles. Incubation and nestling period for C. flavigularis was 17 and 14 days, respectively, and daytime nest attentiveness was 60%. Nest architecture, clutch size, and eggs encountered for these species were consistent with previous reports for the genus Chlorospingus. More nesting behavior studies are needed to fill the knowledge gap regarding all species of Chlorospingus to help us understand nesting requirements for this cloud forest genus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We provide the first detailed account of incubation and nesting behaviors of Carmiol's Tanagers ( Chlorothraupis carmioli) based on 34 nests of the subspecies Chlorothraupis carmioli frenata found between 2008 and 2011 in Manu National Park at 400 and 1100 m above sea level. All nests were shallow cups with three layers. All nests had two white eggs with varying intensity of brown speckling. The parent spent 63.9 ± 11.6% (average ± SD) of the daylight period incubating and conducted 5.6 ± 2.3 ( n = 73 days) off-bout trips per day that lasted 52.6 ± 22.9 min ( n = 409 trips). The incubation period ranged from 15 to 17 days. Nestlings hatched weighing on average 4.2 ± 0.8 g ( n = 8 nestlings) and gained 2.5 ± 0.1 g per day ( n = 63 nestling-days). The nestling period lasted 11 days. Mass the day before fledging was 24.7 ± 2.1 g ( n = 3 nestlings). Nest shape and composition, egg coloration, and clutch size of C.c frenata subspecies was very similar to the nests described for Central American subspecies C.c. carmioli. We additionally compared our results within the newly formed Habia-Chlorothraupis clade. Our results provide additional support for the phylogenetic relationship suggested by Klicka (2007) in which H. rubica is the closest relative of the Chlorothraupis genus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sexual dichromatism, a particular type of sexual dimorphism, occurs in several species and has been associated with sexual selection. In some cases, the differences are so small that they are imperceptible to humans, but possibly detected by birds. The objective measurement of color with spectrophotometers and detailed analyses according to the perception ability of the avian eye have revealed that some species that were once considered to be monochromatic, are in fact dichromatic and able to perceive these differences. In the tropics, the Saffron Finch (Sicalis flaveola) does not present marked sexual dimorphism in coloration, which makes studies in behavioral ecology, natural history and population dynamics difficult. To assess whether there is dichromatism in the species, the reflectance (between 300 and 700 ​nm) of ten body regions was measured in 196 wild adults in Cali-Colombia. Sex was determined using the CHD1 gene on the sex chromosomes. Reflectance spectra were analyzed using: colorimetric variables and the avian visual model. We found that reflectance shows a bimodal curve in all body regions, except the crown. Males presented higher reflectance at long wavelengths, while for females this occurred in ultraviolet wavelengths. For the visual model, we found that there are significant intrasexual differences; however only in crown coloration is there a possible perceived difference between sexes. We conclude that in the Saffron Finch there are color differences between the sexes in all regions considering the physical phenomenon (reflectance), but in general, when evaluating color perception (avian visual model), there are no differences between the sexes in most of the body regions. The intrasexual differences are significant, indicating the possibility of these being signals that influence social interactions in the species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eciton burchellii is a Neotropical army ant that consumes a variety of arthropods captured during swarm raids. Wasp larvae and pupae provide an important food source for E. burchellii, and this ant species is thought to be a major predator on immature wasps in many Neotropical areas. Some birds also prey on wasp brood. Numerous bird species regularly follow E. burchellii swarms but are thought to typically avoid eating army ants. Rather, the birds feed on the arthropods that the ant swarms flush from the leaf litter. I report observations of ant-following birds, the Gray-headed Tanager Eucometis penicillata and the Flame-colored Tanager Piranga bidentata consuming E. burchellii workers that were carrying Polistinae wasp larvae and pupae. It has been suggested that ant-following birds may impose a cost to army ants by consuming arthropods and competing with ants for food resources. Also, it has been speculated that army ants emigrate at night to avoid the loss of their brood to birds, but lack of direct observations of birds attacking ants for their brood makes this claim unsubstantiated. My observations of birds consuming wasp pupae and larvae being carried by E. burchellii are evidence of rarely observed direct stealing of prey and loss of ant foragers to ant-following birds. These observations suggest that birds would also eat the larvae and pupae of army ants if given the opportunity, providing evidence to support the claim that predation pressure may be one factor driving nocturnal emigration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blood parasites exert significant selective pressure, which can alter population dynamics, and the introduction of new parasite lineages in a region could lead to the extinction of endemic avian species that have not coevolved with them. The avifauna of the Pampa del Tamarugal in the desert of Atacama, Chile, is highly depauperate, with two species accounting for the greatest numbers: the widespread Rufous-collared Sparrow (Zonotrichia capensis) and the endemic Tamarugo Conebill (Conirostrum tamarugense). We used molecular and microscopic methods to estimate the prevalence of haemoparasites in birds inhabiting the Pampa del Tamarugal. The molecular screening of the samples from the most common species indicated that the Tamarugo Conebill was only infected by parasites of the genus Leucocytozoon (prevalence 3.5%) and the Rufous-collared Sparrow was uninfected. Only two other bird species (of a total of seven) were infected, the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus), by Plasmodium relictum (prevalence 30%), and the Eared Dove (Zenaida auriculata), by Haemoproteus multipigmentatus (prevalence 100%). The occurrence of House Sparrows infected with the Plasmodium haplotype GRW4 (involved in Hawaiian bird extinctions) may entail the risk of potential host-switching, something particularly relevant for the conservation of the endemic and vulnerable Tamarugo Conebill. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several behavioral aspects of the Red-crested Finch Coryphospingus cucullatus (Statius Müller, 1776) are poorly studied. Here we provide reproductive information on 16 active nests. This information may be valuable to elucidate the phylogenetic relationships of this bird, and to design plans to manage it. Nesting activities occurred from October to February. Clutches consisted of two to three eggs (2.06 ± 0.25), which were laid on consecutive days. Incubation usually started the morning the females laid their last egg and lasted 11.27 ± 0.47 days. Hatching was synchronous, or happened at a one-day interval. The nestling stage lasted 12 ± 0.89 days. Only females incubated the eggs and they fed the young more often than the males did. Overall nesting success, from incubation to fledging, was 28.2%. Nest architecture and egg color proved to be diagnostic characteristics of Coryphospingus, supporting its maintenance as a distinct genus within the recently proposed sub-family Tachyphoninae. Red-crested Finches showed a preference for certain nesting sites, i.e., forest borders or a Cerrado in late regeneration stage. This information can be useful to programs aiming to release illegally trapped individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the first records of the Wingbarred Seedeater (Sporophila americana) in Acre, Brazil. These observations, together with the published records and the specimens housed in museum collections, indicate that S. americana occurs over a considerably larger geographical area than is currently presented in the relevant literature. The occurrence of S. americana in the region of São Paulo de Olivença, in the Brazilian state of Amazonas indicates the potential existence of a sympatric zone with the congener Caqueta Seedeater (Sporophila murallae) in the western Amazonia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Sicalis flaveola specie is also known as saffron finch. It is known to be in the illegally traded and mostly to be used as pets. Although the saffron finch is not listed as threatened species, the hunting, destruction of habit, and introduction of hybrid and exotic specimens to the natural environment can put the specie in risk, and they have been already cited in some regions to be found rarely. Due to the lack of hematological data for the specie S. flaveola, this study aimed to describe the hematological reference values and biometric data (weight) for the specie. Thirty-eight saffron finches where captured in a private ranch located at Guarapari (ES), South-East of Brazil. Capture and sampling were conducted in October 2014. Body mass was measured, and blood was collected. A blood smear was done, and differential leukocyte count was performed. The mean body mass found for the saffron finch was 19.6 ± 1.9 g. The hematological reference values were 16.7 to 63.7 % for heterophils, 36.1 to 82.3 % for lymphocytes, and 0.0 to 2.0 % for monocytes. Using the data gathered in the present study, reference values were calculated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]