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The Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO) is a crucial predictability source on a subseasonal-to-seasonal (S2S) timescale. Therefore, the models participating in the World Weather Research Programme and the World Climate Research Programme (WWRP/WCRP) S2S prediction project focus on accurately predicting and analyzing the MJO. This study provides a detailed description of the configuration within the Institute of Atmospheric Physics at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (IAP-CAS) S2S forecast system. We assess the accuracy of the IAP-CAS model's MJO forecast using traditional Real-time Multivariate MJO (RMM) analysis and cluster analysis. Then, we explain the reasons behind any bias observed in the MJO forecast. Comparing the 20-year hindcast with observations, we found that the IAP-CAS ensemble mean has a skill of 24 d. However, the ensemble spread still has potential for improvement. To examine the MJO structure in detail, we use cluster analysis to classify the MJO events during boreal winter into four types: fast-propagating, slow-propagating, standing, and jumping patterns of MJO. The model exhibits biases of overestimated amplitude and faster propagation speed in the propagating MJO events. Upon further analysis, it was found that the model forecasted a wetter background state. This leads to stronger forecasted convection and coupled waves, especially in the fast MJO events. The overestimation of the strength and length of MJO-coupled waves results in a faster MJO mode and quicker dissipation in the IAP-CAS model. These findings show that the IAP-CAS skillfully forecasts signals of MJO and its propagation, and they also provide valuable guidance for improving the current MJO forecast by developing the ensemble system and moisture forecast.

The purpose of the study was to analyse the factors of influence of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) on improving the image of China in the international arena at the present stage of historical development. The methodological base of the study is built on the basis of an integrated approach with a combination of theoretical and empirical methods of cognition such as historical, comparative, system, statistical data analysis. Within the framework of the study, the main stages and features of the development of TCM, which has a thousand-year history, are considered, its basic principles and methods of therapy are formulated. In addition, the territory of distribution of TCM is determined, and the countries where it is most common are identified. Namely, the approximate number of TCM doctors and departments in medical institutions of the Republic of Kazakhstan is considered. Special attention is paid to determining the place of China in the modern international arena in the context of implementing the policy of “soft power”, considering the role of the Investment Project “One Belt, One Road” in improving the image of the state in the international arena, assessing the importance of TCM in the process of becoming a country as one of the world hegemons against the background of the coronavirus pandemic, and analysing the contribution of TCM to the preservation of human health and world culture. In particular, it is proved that although Chinese medicine differs from Western medicine in its global, comprehensive approach to treatment, its therapeutic techniques are increasingly being introduced into the healthcare system of Western states and other countries of the world, including the Central Asian region

With the growth of technology and the availability of virtual tools, the creation of interactive and dynamic learning environments that increase students’ interest and motivation becomes relevant and possible. The study aimed to analyse and evaluate the effectiveness of using virtual laboratories in the process of learning foreign languages. Analytical research methods, generalisation, systematisation, and surveying were used in the research. The study demonstrated that virtual reality (VR) could change the traditional approach to language learning through immersive experiences of students’ interaction with language structures. The article highlighted technical and pedagogical challenges that require an integrated approach. The study confirmed that mobile learning and augmented reality (AR) offer new education opportunities, providing interactivity and personalisation. The research concluded that augmented reality could improve the learning of complex concepts and increase student motivation. This article highlighted a need for effective pedagogical strategies for the successful implementation of virtual reality and augmented reality. A survey of students at Northwest Normal University was also conducted. The survey of students who use virtual labs to learn foreign languages indicates that they are more effective and useful for the learning process, including the use of Duolingo, Rosetta Stone, Babbel, Memrise, Busuu, Lingodeer, BBC Languages, and Italki. Although the majority of students have a positive attitude towards this technology, some prefer traditional methods, which indicates the need for additional adaptation and support of virtual resources to ensure their optimal effectiveness. The study findings can be used to adapt existing foreign language curricula and courses to the use of virtual research laboratory tools

Abstract For jointly assimilating sea‐ice concentration (SIC) and sea‐ice thickness (SIT) observations into a global coupled climate system model consisting of sea‐ice component with multiple sea‐ice categories, we propose a new sea‐ice analysis update scheme in an ensemble assimilation framework and compare it with some previously used schemes. Different from the conventional scheme that often assigns SIC/SIT analysis to multiple sea‐ice categories according to the background ratios and thus directly updates the corresponding variables in model (i.e., direct‐update scheme), the new scheme converts SIC/SIT analysis into ice heating term to adjust the ice enthalpy using model freezing/melting physics and further updates the model sea‐ice state (i.e., enthalpy‐adjusting scheme). It has a capability in particularly adjusting multiple sea‐ice variables in addition to SIC and SIT in a coordinated way, and avoiding the artificial addition or elimination of sea‐ice in analysis that is often adopted in the direct‐update scheme. Evaluated by several sets of experiments assimilating satellite‐derived Arctic sea‐ice observations, the enthalpy‐adjusting scheme performs better than the direct‐update scheme in analysis of the Arctic SIT. Further, 4‐week forecasts after assimilation initialization exhibit slow growth of forecast error. Compared to the direct‐update scheme, the enthalpy‐adjusting scheme initialized forecasts show comparable skills in the SIC but significantly higher skills in the SIT, especially in the Arctic sea‐ice edge areas. These results highlight advantage of the enthalpy‐adjusting scheme that has promise to improve coupled data assimilation and reduce climate prediction uncertainty.

Heat storage within the Earth system is a fundamental metric for understanding climate change. The current energy imbalance at the top of the atmosphere causes changes in energy storage within the ocean, the atmosphere, the cryosphere, and the continental landmasses. After the ocean, heat storage in land is the second largest term of the Earth heat inventory, affecting physical processes relevant to society and ecosystems, such as the stability of the soil carbon pool. Here, we present an update of the continental heat storage, combining for the first time the heat in the land subsurface, inland water bodies, and permafrost thawing. The continental landmasses stored 23.8 ± 2.0 × 1021 J during the period 1960–2020, but the distribution of heat among the three components is not homogeneous. The sensible diffusion of heat through the ground accounts for ∼90 % of the continental heat storage, with inland water bodies and permafrost degradation (i.e. latent heat) accounting for ∼0.7 % and ∼9 % of the continental heat, respectively. Although the inland water bodies and permafrost soils store less heat than the solid ground, we argue that their associated climate phenomena justify their monitoring and inclusion in the Earth heat inventory.

The Earth climate system is out of energy balance, and heat has accumulated continuously over the past decades, warming the ocean, the land, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere. According to the Sixth Assessment Report by Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, this planetary warming over multiple decades is human-driven and results in unprecedented and committed changes to the Earth system, with adverse impacts for ecosystems and human systems. The Earth heat inventory provides a measure of the Earth energy imbalance (EEI) and allows for quantifying how much heat has accumulated in the Earth system, as well as where the heat is stored. Here we show that the Earth system has continued to accumulate heat, with 381±61 ZJ accumulated from 1971 to 2020. This is equivalent to a heating rate (i.e., the EEI) of 0.48±0.1 W m−2. The majority, about 89 %, of this heat is stored in the ocean, followed by about 6 % on land, 1 % in the atmosphere, and about 4 % available for melting the cryosphere. Over the most recent period (2006–2020), the EEI amounts to 0.76±0.2 W m−2. The Earth energy imbalance is the most fundamental global climate indicator that the scientific community and the public can use as the measure of how well the world is doing in the task of bringing anthropogenic climate change under control. Moreover, this indicator is highly complementary to other established ones like global mean surface temperature as it represents a robust measure of the rate of climate change and its future commitment. We call for an implementation of the Earth energy imbalance into the Paris Agreement's Global Stocktake based on best available science. The Earth heat inventory in this study, updated from von Schuckmann et al. (2020), is underpinned by worldwide multidisciplinary collaboration and demonstrates the critical importance of concerted international efforts for climate change monitoring and community-based recommendations and we also call for urgently needed actions for enabling continuity, archiving, rescuing, and calibrating efforts to assure improved and long-term monitoring capacity of the global climate observing system. The data for the Earth heat inventory are publicly available, and more details are provided in Table 4.

Vibration and fatigue damage of pump shafts has become a prominent engineering problem, indicating the need for higher-quality reliability analysis of the pump unit in the design stage. In this study, the unsteady flow field in a large centrifugal dredge pump was numerically simulated via the unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) method with the SST k-ω model. An experiment was carried out to verify the numerical method. The hydraulic radial force on the impeller and the total radial load were calculated based on computational fluid dynamics. The flow field with a double volute was simulated, analyzed, and compared to the flow field with a single volute. The stress of the pump shaft caused by the radial load was also calculated and discussed. The results show that the impeller gravity determines the time-averaged value and fluctuation frequency of the total radial load on the shaft, which must be considered in the shaft stability analysis. The total radial load fluctuating in asymmetric cycle results in stress cycles with different features at different circumferential locations. The application of a double volute effectively reduces the radial load on the pump shaft, which decreases the time-averaged hydraulic radial force by 38% and its fluctuation amplitude by 3%, decreases the time-averaged total radial load by 20% and its fluctuation amplitude by 28% in the design condition, and decreases the local stress at the narrowest shaft section by 44%. A double volute can be applied to weaken vibration and fatigue damage for a pump shaft if it is acceptable for the pump efficiency to be lowered.

A divertor detachment with sustainable high-performance plasmas has been achieved through divertor nitrogen seeding in the HL-2A tokamak. The closed divertor structure facilitates achieving high divertor neutral pressure due to its efficient particle containment effect as demonstrated by both experimental and SOLPS simulation results, which aids in achieving the divertor detachment. The radiative divertor is conducive to high-frequency small edge localized modes (ELMs) operation, characterized by a reduced pedestal ion temperature gradient $\nabla {T_{\text{i}}}$ and the enhanced electron density gradient $\nabla {n_{\text{e}}}$ . The presence of minority nitrogen at the edge plasma, which results from the divertor nitrogen seeding, contributes to the increase of ion temperature ${T_{\text{i}}}$ in the confinement region by suppressing the turbulence through the impurity dilution effect and ${\mathbf{E}} \times {\mathbf{B}}$ shear. The increased ion temperature ${T_{\text{i}}}$ and electron density $n_e$ compensate the energy loss resulting from the increased edge radiation during detachment, which contributes to the confinement sustainment combined with reduced pedestal energy loss caused by small ELMs. This work advances our understanding of the fundamental physics governing closed divertor detachment with sustainable high-performance plasmas through divertor nitrogen seeding.

Abstract Gamma‐ray glows are observational evidence of relativistic electron acceleration due to the electric field in thunderclouds. However, it is yet to be understood whether such relativistic electrons contribute to the initiation of lightning discharges. To tackle this question, we started the citizen science “Thundercloud Project,” where we map radiation measurements of glows from winter thunderclouds along Japan's sea coast area. We developed and deployed 58 compact gamma‐ray monitors at the end of 2021. On 30 December 2021, five monitors simultaneously detected a glow with its radiation distribution horizontally extending for 2 km. The glow terminated coinciding with a lightning flash at 04:08:34 JST, which was recorded by the two radio‐band lightning mapping systems, FALMA and DALMA. The initial discharges during the preliminary breakdown started above the glow, that is, in vicinity of the electron acceleration site. This result provides one example of possible connections between electron acceleration and lightning initiation.

ABSTRACT: The small intestine is the primary site of nutrient digestion and absorption, which plays a key role in the survival of neonatal calves. A comprehensive assessment of the phosphoproteomic changes in the small intestine of neonatal calves is unavailable; therefore, we used phosphopeptide enrichment coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to investigate the changes in the phosphoproteome profile in the bovine small intestine during the first 36 h of life. Twelve neonatal male calves were assigned to one of the following groups: (1) calves not fed colostrum and slaughtered approximately 2 h postpartum (n = 3), (2) calves fed colostrum at 1 to 2 h and slaughtered 8 h postpartum (n = 3), (3) calves fed 2 colostrum meals (at 1–2 and 10–12 h) and slaughtered 24 h postpartum (n = 3), (4) calves fed 3 colostrum meals (at 1–2, 10–12, and 22–24 h) and slaughtered 36 h postpartum (n = 3). Mid-duodenal, jejunal, and ileal samples of the calves were collected after slaughter. We identified 1,678 phosphoproteins with approximately 3,080 phosphosites, which were mainly Ser (89.9%), Thr (9.8%), and Tyr (0.3%) residues; they belonged to the prodirected (52.9%), basic (20.4%), acidic (16.6%), and Tyr-directed (1.7%) motif categories. The regional differentially expressed phosphoproteins included zonula occludens 2, sorting nexin 12, and protein kinase C, which are mainly associated with developmental processes, intracellular transport, vesicle-mediated transport, and immune system process. They are enriched in the endocytosis, tight junction, insulin signaling, and focal adhesion pathways. The temporal differentially expressed phosphoproteins included occludin, epsin 1, and bridging integrator 1, which were mainly associated with macromolecule metabolic process, cell adhesion, and growth. They were enriched in the spliceosomes, adherens junctions, and tight junctions. The observed changes in the phosphoproteins in the tissues of small intestine suggest the protein phosphorylation plays an important role in nutrient transport and immune response of calves during early life, which needs to be confirmed in a larger study.

ABSTRACT: Arginine, one of the conditionally essential AA, has been reported to affect fat synthesis and metabolism in nonruminant animals by influencing adenosine monophosphate activated protein kinase (AMPK) in some organs. In dairy cows, the effect of Arg on milk fat production is not clear, and any potential mechanism that underlies the effect is unknown. We tested the hypothesis that Arg infusion would improve the production of milk fat, and explored possible mechanism that might underlie any effect. We used 6 healthy lactating cows at 20 ± 2 d in milk, in fourth parity, with a body weight of 508 ± 14 kg, body condition score of 3.0 ± 0, and a milk yield of 30.6 ± 1.8 kg/d (mean ± standard deviation). The cows were blocked by days in milk and milk yield and each cow received 3 treatments in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square design, with each of the experimental periods lasting 7 d with a 14-d washout between each period. The treatments, delivered in random order, were (1) infusion of saline (control); (2) infusion of 0.216 mol/d of l-Arg in saline (Arg); (3) infusion of 0.868 mol/d of l-Ala in saline (the Arg and Ala treatments were iso-nitrogenous) through a jugular vein. On the last day of each experimental period, blood was sampled to measure insulin, nitric oxide, glucose, and nonesterified fatty acid, and the liver and mammary gland were biopsied to measure the expression of genes. Milk yield was recorded, and milk fat percentage was measured daily during each of the experimental periods. The yield and composition of fatty acid (FA) in milk was measured daily on the last 3 d during each of the experimental periods. The data were analyzed using a mixed model with treatment as a fixed factor, and cow, period, and block as random factors. The daily milk yield and milk fat yield when the cows were infused with Arg were 2.2 kg and 76 g, respectively, higher than that in control, and 1.8 kg and 111 g, respectively, higher than that in Ala. When the cows were infused with Arg they had higher concentration and yield of de novo synthesized FA, than when they received the control or Ala infusions, although milk fat percentage, daily feed intake, and the digestibility of nutrients were not affected by treatment. The serum concentration of nitric oxide and insulin were higher during Arg than during control or Ala, with no difference between control and Ala. In the liver, the expression of the genes coding for AMPK (PRKAA1, PRKAB1, and PRKAG1) and genes related to the oxidation of FA were higher during Arg than during control or Ala, whereas in the mammary gland the expression PRKAB1 was lowest, and the expression of genes involved in the synthesis of milk fat were highest, during Arg infusion. The results suggest the intravenous infusion of Arg enhanced the production of milk fat by promoting the de novo synthesis of FA and increasing milk yield.

Quantification and attribution of long-term tropospheric ozone trends are critical for understanding the impact of human activity and climate change on atmospheric chemistry but are also challenged by the limited coverage of long-term ozone observations in the free troposphere where ozone has higher production efficiency and radiative potential compared to that at the surface. In this study, we examine observed tropospheric ozone trends, their attributions, and radiative impacts from 1995–2017 using aircraft observations from the In-service Aircraft for a Global Observing System database (IAGOS), ozonesondes, and a multi-decadal GEOS-Chem chemical model simulation. IAGOS observations above 11 regions in the Northern Hemisphere and 19 of 27 global ozonesonde sites have measured increases in tropospheric ozone (950–250 hPa) by 2.7 ± 1.7 and 1.9 ± 1.7 ppbv per decade on average, respectively, with particularly large increases in the lower troposphere (950–800 hPa) above East Asia, the Persian Gulf, India, northern South America, the Gulf of Guinea, and Malaysia/Indonesia by 2.8 to 10.6 ppbv per decade. The GEOS-Chem simulation driven by reanalysis meteorological fields and the most up-to-date year-specific anthropogenic emission inventory reproduces the overall pattern of observed tropospheric ozone trends, including the large ozone increases over the tropics of 2.1–2.9 ppbv per decade and above East Asia of 0.5–1.8 ppbv per decade and the weak tropospheric ozone trends above North America, Europe, and high latitudes in both hemispheres, but trends are underestimated compared to observations. GEOS-Chem estimates an increasing trend of 0.4 Tg yr−1 of the tropospheric ozone burden in 1995–2017. We suggest that uncertainties in the anthropogenic emission inventory in the early years of the simulation (e.g., 1995–1999) over developing regions may contribute to GEOS-Chem's underestimation of tropospheric ozone trends. GEOS-Chem sensitivity simulations show that changes in global anthropogenic emission patterns, including the equatorward redistribution of surface emissions and the rapid increases in aircraft emissions, are the dominant factors contributing to tropospheric ozone trends by 0.5 Tg yr−1. In particular, we highlight the disproportionately large, but previously underappreciated, contribution of aircraft emissions to tropospheric ozone trends by 0.3 Tg yr−1, mainly due to aircraft emitting NOx in the mid-troposphere and upper troposphere where ozone production efficiency is high. Decreases in lower-stratospheric ozone and the stratosphere–troposphere flux in 1995–2017 contribute to an ozone decrease at mid-latitudes and high latitudes. We estimate the change in tropospheric ozone radiative impacts from 1995–1999 to 2013–2017 is +18.5 mW m−2, with 43.5 mW m−2 contributed by anthropogenic emission changes (20.5 mW m−2 alone by aircraft emissions), highlighting that the equatorward redistribution of emissions to areas with strong convection and the increase in aircraft emissions are effective for increasing tropospheric ozone's greenhouse effect.

Major disruptions of the winter season, high-latitude stratospheric polar vortices can result in stratospheric anomalies that persist for months. These sudden stratospheric warming events are recognized as an important potential source of forecast skill for surface climate on subseasonal to seasonal timescales. Realizing this skill in operational subseasonal forecast models remains a challenge, as models must capture both the evolution of the stratospheric polar vortices in addition to their coupling to the troposphere. The processes involved in this coupling remain a topic of open research. We present here the Stratospheric Nudging And Predictable Surface Impacts (SNAPSI) project. SNAPSI is a new model intercomparison protocol designed to study the role of the Arctic and Antarctic stratospheric polar vortex disturbances for surface predictability in subseasonal to seasonal forecast models. Based on a set of controlled, subseasonal ensemble forecasts of three recent events, the protocol aims to address four main scientific goals. First, to quantify the impact of improved stratospheric forecasts on near-surface forecast skill. Second, to attribute specific extreme events to stratospheric variability. Third, to assess the mechanisms by which the stratosphere influences the troposphere in the forecast models. Fourth, to investigate the wave processes that lead to the stratospheric anomalies themselves. Although not a primary focus, the experiments are furthermore expected to shed light on coupling between the tropical stratosphere and troposphere. The output requested will allow for a more detailed, process-based community analysis than has been possible with existing databases of subseasonal forecasts.

Selin Co, located within permafrost regions surrounded by glaciers, has exhibited the greatest increase in water storage among all the lakes on the Tibetan Plateau over the last 50 years. Most of the increased lake water volume has been attributed to increased precipitation and the accelerated melting of glacier ice, but these processes are still not sufficient to close the water budget with the expansion of Selin Co. Ground ice meltwater released by thawing permafrost due to continuous climate warming over the past several decades is regarded as another source of lake expansion. This study presents the first attempt to quantify the water contribution of ground ice melting to the expansion of Selin Co by evaluating the ground surface deformation. We monitored the spatial distribution of surface deformation in the Selin Co basin using the small baseline subset (SBAS) interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) technique and compared the results with the findings of field surveys. Then, the ground ice meltwater volume in the watershed was calculated based on the cumulated settlement. Finally, this volume was compared with the lake volume change during the same period, and the contribution ratio was derived. SBAS-InSAR monitoring during 2017–2020 illustrated widespread and large subsidence in the upstream section of the Zhajiazangbu subbasin, where widespread continuous permafrost is present. The terrain subsidence rate was normally between 5 and 20 mm a−1, indicating rapid ground ice loss in the region. The ground ice meltwater was released at a rate of ∼57×106 m3 a−1, and the rate of increase in lake water storage was ∼485×106 m3 a−1 during the same period, with ground ice meltwater contributing ∼12 % of the lake volume increase. This study contributes to explaining the rapid expansion of Selin Co and equilibrating the water balance at the watershed scale. More importantly, the proposed method can be extended to other watersheds underlain by permafrost and help in understanding the hydrological changes in these watersheds.

Abstract Hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotypes vary greatly in different regions. The aim of this study is to investigate the distribution of HCV genotypes in HCV infected patients, in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. Nucleic acid extraction and amplification were performed with test kits on 153 HCV infected patients serum samples. The HCV viral load was measured using reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) and HCV genotypes were determined. Among the 153 HCV-infected patients, 56 had genotype (GT)1b (36.60%), 45 had GT2a (29.40%), 23 had GT3a (15.00%), 14 had GT3b (9.20%),13 had GT6a (8.50%), 1 had GT1g (0.70%), 1 had GT6xa (0.70%). In GT1b, 21.40% were female and 78.60% were male; in GT2a, 42.20% were female and 57.80% were male;Males were most prevalent in genotypes 1b(39.30%), while female were most prevalent in genotype 2a(46.30%). Rare GT1g and GT6xa were also detected in males. The 41-50 year age group had the highest HCV prevalence of 32.00%. HCV GT1b is the predominant HCV genotype in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region.

Simulations by six Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) Earth system models indicate that the seasonal cycle of baseline tropospheric ozone at northern midlatitudes has been shifting since the mid-20th century. Beginning in ∼ 1940, the magnitude of the seasonal cycle increased by ∼10 ppb (measured from seasonal minimum to maximum), and the seasonal maximum shifted to later in the year by about 3 weeks. This shift maximized in the mid-1980s, followed by a reversal – the seasonal cycle decreased in amplitude and the maximum shifted back to earlier in the year. Similar changes are seen in measurements collected from the 1970s to the present. The timing of the seasonal cycle changes is generally concurrent with the rise and fall of anthropogenic emissions that followed industrialization and the subsequent implementation of air quality emission controls. A quantitative comparison of the temporal changes in the ozone seasonal cycle at sites in both Europe and North America with the temporal changes in ozone precursor emissions across the northern midlatitudes found a high degree of similarity between these two temporal patterns. We hypothesize that changing precursor emissions are responsible for the shift in the ozone seasonal cycle; this is supported by the absence of such seasonal shifts in southern midlatitudes where anthropogenic emissions are much smaller. We also suggest a mechanism by which changing emissions drive the changing seasonal cycle: increasing emissions of NOx allow summertime photochemical production of ozone to become more important than ozone transported from the stratosphere, and increasing volatile organic compounds (VOCs) lead to progressively greater photochemical ozone production in the summer months, thereby increasing the amplitude of the seasonal ozone cycle. Decreasing emissions of both precursor classes then reverse these changes. The quantitative parameter values that characterize the seasonal shifts provide useful benchmarks for evaluating model simulations, both against observations and between models.

Relict permafrost presents an ideal opportunity to understand the impacts of climatic warming on the ground thermal regime since it is characterized by a mean annual ground temperature close to 0 ∘C and relatively thin permafrost. The long-term and continuous observations of permafrost thermal state and climate background are of great importance to reveal the links between the energy balance on hourly to annual timescales, to evaluate the variations in permafrost thermal state over multiannual periods and to validate the remote sensing dataset. We present 11 years of meteorological and soil data from the Mahan Mountain relict permafrost site of northeastern Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. The meteorological data comprise air and land surface temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and direction, shortwave and longwave downwards and upwards radiation, water vapor pressure, and precipitation on a half-hour timescale. The active layer data include daily soil temperature and soil volumetric water content at five different depths. The permafrost data consist of the ground temperature at 20 different depths up to 28.4 m. The high-quality and long-term datasets are expected to serve as accurate forcing data in land surface models and evaluate remote-sensing products for a broader geoscientific community. The datasets are available from the National Tibetan Plateau/Third Pole Environment Data Center (https://doi.org/10.11888/Cryos.tpdc.271838, Wu and Xie, 2021).

Wind stress, wind waves, and turbulence are essential variables and play a critical role in regulating a series of physical and biogeochemical processes in large shallow lakes. However, the parameterization of these variables and simulation of their interactions in large shallow lakes have not been strictly evaluated owing to a lack of field observations of lake hydrodynamic processes. To address this problem, two process-based field observations were conducted to record the development of summer and winter wind-driven currents in Lake Taihu, a large shallow lake in China. Using these observations and numerical experiments, a Wave and Current Coupled Model (WCCM) is developed by rebuilding the wind drag coefficient expression, introducing wave-induced radiation stress, and adopting a simple turbulence scheme to simulate wind-driven currents in Lake Taihu. The results show that the WCCM can accurately simulate the upwelling process driven by wind-driven currents during the field observations. A comparison with a reference model indicates a 42.9 % increase of the WCCM-simulated current speed, which is mainly attributed to the new wind drag coefficient expression. The WCCM-simulated current direction and field are also improved owing to the introduction of wave-induced radiation stress. The use of the simple turbulent scheme in the WCCM improves the efficiency of the upwelling process simulation. The WCCM thus provides a sound basis for simulating shallow lake ecosystems.

The Earth system models (ESMs) that participated in the sixth Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) tend to simulate excessive cooling in surface air temperature (TAS) between 1960 and 1990. The anomalous cooling is pronounced over the Northern Hemisphere (NH) midlatitudes, coinciding with the rapid growth of anthropogenic sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions, the primary precursor of atmospheric sulfate aerosols. Structural uncertainties between ESMs have a larger impact on the anomalous cooling than internal variability. Historical simulations with and without anthropogenic aerosol emissions indicate that the anomalous cooling in the ESMs is attributed to the higher aerosol burden in these models. The aerosol forcing sensitivity, estimated as the outgoing shortwave radiation (OSR) response to aerosol concentration changes, cannot well explain the diversity of pothole cooling (PHC) biases in the ESMs. The relative contributions to aerosol forcing sensitivity from aerosol–radiation interactions (ARIs) and aerosol–cloud interactions (ACIs) can be estimated from CMIP6 simulations. We show that even when the aerosol forcing sensitivity is similar between ESMs, the relative contributions of ARI and ACI may be substantially different. The ACI accounts for between 64 % and 87 % of the aerosol forcing sensitivity in the models and is the main source of the aerosol forcing sensitivity differences between the ESMs. The ACI can be further decomposed into a cloud-amount term (which depends linearly on cloud fraction) and a cloud-albedo term (which is independent of cloud fraction, to the first order), with the cloud-amount term accounting for most of the inter-model differences.

Abstract Realizing applicably appreciated spintronic functionalities basing on the coupling between charge and spin degrees of freedom is still a challenge. For example, the anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR) effect can be utilized to read out the information stored in magnetic structures. However, the application of AMR in antiferromagnet-based spintronics is usually hindered by the small AMR value. Here, we discover a colossal AMR with its value reaching 1.84 × 106% at 2 K, which stems from the field-induced metal-to-insulator transition (MIT), in a nearly Dirac material EuMnSb2. Density functional theory calculations identify a Dirac-like band around the Y point that depends strongly on the spin–orbit coupling and dominates the electrical transport. The indirect band gap at the Fermi level evolves with magnetic structure of Eu2+ moments, consequently giving rise to the field-induced MIT and the colossal AMR. Our results suggest that the antiferromagnetic topological materials can serve as a fertile ground for spintronics applications.

Detachments of large parts of low-angle mountain glaciers in recent years have raised great attention due to their threats to lives and properties downstream. While current studies have mainly focused on post-event analysis, a few opportunities have presented themselves to assess the potential hazards of a glacier prone to detachment. Here we present a comprehensive analysis of the dynamics and runout hazard of a low-angle (∼20∘) valley glacier, close to the Qinghai–Tibet railway and highway, in the East Kunlun Mountains on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. The changes in morphology, terminus position, and surface elevation of the glacier between 1975 and 2021 were characterized with a stereo-image pair from the historical KH-9 spy satellite, six digital elevation models (DEMs), and 11 high-resolution images from Planet Labs. The surface flow velocities of the glacier tongue between 2009 and 2020 were also tracked based on cross-correlation of Planet images. Our observations show that the glacier snout has been progressively advancing in the past 4 decades, with a stepwise increase in advance velocity from 4.55±0.46ma-1 between 1975 and 2009 to 30.88±2.36ma-1 between 2015 and 2020. DEM differencing confirms the glacial advance, with surface thinning in the source region and thickening in the tongue. The net volume loss over the glacier tongue was about 11.21±2.66×105 m3 during 1975–2018. Image cross-correlation reveals that the surface flow velocity of the glacier tongue has been increasing in recent years, with the mean velocity below 4800 m more than tripling from 6.3±1.8ma-1 during 2009–2010 to 22.3±3.2ma-1 during 2019–2020. With a combined analysis of the geomorphic, climatic, and hydrologic conditions of the glacier, we suggest that the flow of the glacier tongue is mainly controlled by the glacier geometry, while the presence of an ice-dammed lake and a supraglacial pond implies a hydrological influence as well. Taking the whole glacier and glacier tongue as two endmember avalanche sources, we assessed the potential runout distances of these two scenarios using the angle of reach and the Voellmy–Salm avalanche model. The assessments show that the avalanche of the whole glacier would easily travel a distance that would threaten the safety of the railway. In contrast, the detachment of the glacier tongue would threaten the railway only with a small angle of reach or when employing a low-friction parameter in the Voellmy–Salm modeling.

The spurious double Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is one of the most prominent systematic biases in coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation models (CGCMs), and the underestimated marine stratus over eastern subtropical oceans has been recognized as a possible contributor. Rather than modifying the cloud scheme itself, this study significantly ameliorates the marine stratus simulation through improving parameterizations of boundary-layer turbulence and shallow convection in the medium-resolution Beijing Climate Center Climate System Model version 2 (BCC-CSM2-MR). The University of Washington moist turbulence scheme is implemented in BCC-CSM2-MR to better represent the stratocumulus, and a decoupling criterion is also introduced to the shallow convection scheme for improving the simulation of the stratocumulus-to-cumulus transition. Results show that the simulated precipitation in the eastern Pacific south of the Equator is largely reduced, alleviating the double ITCZ problem. The tropical precipitation asymmetry index increases from −0.024 in the original BCC-CSM2-MR to 0.147 in the revised BCC-CSM2-MR, which is much closer to the observation. The study suggests that improving parameterizations of boundary-layer turbulence and shallow convection is effective for mitigating the double ITCZ syndrome in CGCMs.

Permafrost has great influences on the climatic, hydrological, and ecological systems on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP). The changing permafrost and its impact have been attracting great attention worldwide like never before. More observational and modeling approaches are needed to promote an understanding of permafrost thermal state and climatic conditions on the QTP. However, limited data on the permafrost thermal state and climate background have been sporadically reported in different pieces of literature due to the difficulties of accessing and working in this region where the weather is severe, environmental conditions are harsh, and the topographic and morphological features are complex. From the 1990s, we began to establish a permafrost monitoring network on the QTP. Meteorological variables were measured by automatic meteorological systems. The soil temperature and moisture data were collected from an integrated observation system in the active layer. Deep ground temperature (GT) was observed from boreholes. In this study, a comprehensive dataset consisting of long-term meteorological, GT, soil moisture, and soil temperature data was compiled after quality control from an integrated, distributed, and multiscale observation network in the permafrost regions of QTP. The dataset is helpful for scientists with multiple study fields (i.e., climate, cryospheric, ecology and hydrology, meteorology science), which will significantly promote the verification, development, and improvement of hydrological models, land surface process models, and climate models on the QTP. The datasets are available from the National Tibetan Plateau/Third Pole Environment Data Center (https://data.tpdc.ac.cn/en/disallow/789e838e-16ac-4539-bb7e-906217305a1d/, last access: 24 August 2021, https://doi.org/10.11888/Geocry.tpdc.271107, Lin et al., 2021).

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is very important in the vulnerable ecological environment of the Third Pole; however, data regarding the spatial distribution of SOC are still scarce and uncertain. Based on multiple environmental variables and soil profile data from 458 pits (depth of 0–1 m) and 114 cores (depth of 0–3 m), this study uses a machine-learning approach to evaluate the SOC storage and spatial distribution at a depth interval of 0–3 m in the frozen ground area of the Third Pole region. Our results showed that SOC stocks (SOCSs) exhibited a decreasing spatial pattern from the southeast towards the northwest. The estimated SOC storage in the upper 3 m of the soil profile was 46.18 Pg for an area of 3.27×106 km2, which included 21.69 and 24.49 Pg for areas of permafrost and seasonally frozen ground, respectively. Our results provide information on the storage and patterns of SOCSs at a 1 km resolution for areas of frozen ground in the Third Pole region, thus providing a scientific basis for future studies pertaining to Earth system models. The dataset is open-access and available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4293454 (Wang et al., 2020).

Urban aerosol measurements are necessary to establish associations between air pollution and human health outcomes and to evaluate the efficacy of air quality legislation and emissions standards. The measurement of urban aerosol particle size distributions (PSDs) is of particular importance as they enable characterization of size-dependent processes that govern a particle's transport, transformation, and fate in the urban atmosphere. PSDs also improve our ability to link air pollution to health effects through evaluation of particle deposition in the respiratory system and inhalation toxicity. To inform future measurements of urban aerosol observations, this paper reviews and critically analyzes the current state of knowledge on urban aerosol PSD measurements by synthesizing 737 PSD observations made between 1998 to 2017 in 114 cities in 43 countries around the globe. Significant variations in the shape and magnitude of urban aerosol number and mass PSDs were identified among different geographical regions. In general, number PSDs in Europe (EU) and North America, Australia, and New Zealand (NAAN) are dominated by nucleation- and Aitken-mode particles. PSDs in Central, South, and Southeast Asia (CSSA) and East Asia (EA) are shifted to larger sizes, with a meaningful contribution from the accumulation mode. Urban mass PSDs are typically bimodal, presenting a dominant mode in the accumulation mode and a secondary mode in the coarse mode. Most PSD observations published in the literature are short-term, with only 14 % providing data for longer than 6 months. There is a paucity of PSDs measured in Africa (AF), CSSA, Latin America (LA), and West Asia (WA), demonstrating the need for long-term aerosol measurements across wide size ranges in many cities around the globe. Geographical variations in urban aerosol effective densities were also reviewed. Size-resolved urban aerosol effective density functions from 3 to 10 000 nm were established for different geographical regions and intra-city sampling locations in order to accurately translate number PSDs to mass PSDs, with significant variations observed between near-road and urban background sites. The results of this study demonstrate that global initiatives are urgently needed to develop infrastructure for routine and long-term monitoring of urban aerosol PSDs spanning the nucleation to coarse mode. Doing so will advance our understanding of spatiotemporal trends in urban PSDs throughout the world and provide a foundation to more reliably elucidate the impact of urban aerosols on atmospheric processes, human health, and climate.

We report key elements and figures related to the proceedings of the 2021 edition of the XXIVth ISPRS Congress. Similarly to 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic caused global travel challenges and restrictions for the first half of 2021. Consequently, the physical Congress re-scheduled from June 2020 to July 2021 was again postponed to June 2022, still in Nice (France). Papers were already submitted and the ISPRS Council decided to carry out the review process and the publication of the proceedings of the papers submitted under the label “2021 Edition”. The authors of published papers had the opportunity to present their work during a Digital Event, this year scheduled the same week as the planned Congress (5–9 July 2021).

Stereo dense matching is a fundamental task for 3D scene reconstruction. Recently, deep learning based methods have proven effective on some benchmark datasets, for example Middlebury and KITTI stereo. However, it is not easy to find a training dataset for aerial photogrammetry. Generating ground truth data for real scenes is a challenging task. In the photogrammetry community, many evaluation methods use digital surface models (DSM) to generate the ground truth disparity for the stereo pairs, but in this case interpolation may bring errors in the estimated disparity. In this paper, we publish a stereo dense matching dataset based on ISPRS Vaihingen dataset, and use it to evaluate some traditional and deep learning based methods. The evaluation shows that learning-based methods outperform traditional methods significantly when the fine tuning is done on a similar landscape. The benchmark also investigates the impact of the base to height ratio on the performance of the evaluated methods. The dataset can be found in https://github.com/whuwuteng/benchmark_ISPRS2021.

Our quantitative understanding of natural tropospheric ozone concentrations is limited by the paucity of reliable measurements before the 1980s. We utilize the existing measurements to compare the long-term ozone changes that occurred within the marine boundary layer at northern and southern midlatitudes. Since 1950 ozone concentrations have increased by a factor of 2.1 ± 0.2 in the Northern Hemisphere (NH) and are presently larger than in the Southern Hemisphere (SH), where only a much smaller increase has occurred. These changes are attributed to increased ozone production driven by anthropogenic emissions of photochemical ozone precursors that increased with industrial development. The greater ozone concentrations and increases in the NH are consistent with the predominant location of anthropogenic emission sources in that hemisphere. The available measurements indicate that this interhemispheric gradient was much smaller and was likely reversed in the pre-industrial troposphere with higher concentrations in the SH. Six Earth system model (ESM) simulations indicate similar total NH increases (1.9 with a standard deviation of 0.3), but they occurred more slowly over a longer time period, and the ESMs do not find higher pre-industrial ozone in the SH. Several uncertainties in the ESMs may cause these model–measurement disagreements: the assumed natural nitrogen oxide emissions may be too large, the relatively greater fraction of ozone injected by stratosphere–troposphere exchange to the NH may be overestimated, ozone surface deposition to ocean and land surfaces may not be accurately simulated, and model treatment of emissions of biogenic hydrocarbons and their photochemistry may not be adequate.

BCC-CSM2-HR is a high-resolution version of the Beijing Climate Center (BCC) Climate System Model (T266 in the atmosphere and 1/4∘ latitude × 1/4∘ longitude in the ocean). Its development is on the basis of the medium-resolution version BCC-CSM2-MR (T106 in the atmosphere and 1∘ latitude × 1∘ longitude in the ocean) which is the baseline for BCC participation in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6). This study documents the high-resolution model, highlights major improvements in the representation of atmospheric dynamical core and physical processes. BCC-CSM2-HR is evaluated for historical climate simulations from 1950 to 2014, performed under CMIP6-prescribed historical forcing, in comparison with its previous medium-resolution version BCC-CSM2-MR. Observed global warming trends of surface air temperature from 1950 to 2014 are well captured by both BCC-CSM2-MR and BCC-CSM2-HR. Present-day basic atmospheric mean states during the period from 1995 to 2014 are then evaluated at global scale, followed by an assessment on climate variabilities in the tropics including the tropical cyclones (TCs), the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO), and the quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) in the stratosphere. It is shown that BCC-CSM2-HR represents the global energy balance well and can realistically reproduce the main patterns of atmospheric temperature and wind, precipitation, land surface air temperature, and sea surface temperature (SST). It also improves the spatial patterns of sea ice and associated seasonal variations in both hemispheres. The bias of the double intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), obvious in BCC-CSM2-MR, almost disappears in BCC-CSM2-HR. TC activity in the tropics is increased with resolution enhanced. The cycle of ENSO, the eastward propagative feature and convection intensity of MJO, and the downward propagation of QBO in BCC-CSM2-HR are all in a better agreement with observations than their counterparts in BCC-CSM2-MR. Some imperfections are, however, noted in BCC-CSM2-HR, such as the excessive cloudiness in the eastern basin of the tropical Pacific with cold SST biases and the insufficient number of tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic.

Introduction Previous Electronic Health Records (EHR) based studies adopted various definitions in identifying Treatment-Resistant Depression (TRD) patients. There is a lack of similar attempts among Chinese population which limits the understanding of TRD in China. Objectives Assess TRD identification using EHR from a major psychiatric hospital in China. Methods This study utilized a retrospective Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) cohort of patients who newly initiated pharmaceutical treatment (2010-2018); follow-up was ended upon 1-year or treatment discontinuation (≥120d without treatment). TRD was first identified based on common clinical definition of two prior regimen failures (change of regimen) with 4-week as regimen adequacy threshold (Def1). Alternative adequacy thresholds of 2-week and 6-week were applied. Based on Def1 (4-week), at least 3 distinctive regimens were additionally required in TRD identification (Def2). Further, a data-driven definition (Def3) based on drug count as having ≥3 antidepressants or ≥1 antipsychotic within 1 year was considered (Cepeda et al., 2018). Results From 12257 MDD patients included in the cohort, Def1 identified 633 (5.2%) TRD cases, whereas regimen adequacy thresholds of 2-week and 6-week identified 1772 (14.5%) and 61 (0.5%) cases, respectively. Further, Def2 identified 261 (2.4%) TRD cases. Finally, Def3 yielded 2449 (20.0%) TRD cases, including 1966 exclusive cases that were not identified by Def1. Conclusions This study showed different definitions for TRD identification had considerable impact on the number of patients identified among Chinese population, obscuring the comparability among EHR-based TRD studies. As first step, we found the criteria of regimen adequacy as major contributor to the observed variability in China. Disclosure No significant relationships.

Extensive and rigorous model intercomparison is of great importance before model application due to the uncertainties in current land surface models (LSMs). Without considering the uncertainties in forcing data and model parameters, this study designed an ensemble of 55 296 experiments to evaluate the Noah LSM with multi-parameterization (Noah-MP) for snow cover events (SCEs), soil temperature (ST) and soil liquid water (SLW) simulation, and investigated the sensitivity of parameterization schemes at a typical permafrost site on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP). The results showed that Noah-MP systematically overestimates snow cover, which could be greatly resolved when adopting the sublimation from wind and a semi-implicit snow/soil temperature time scheme. As a result of the overestimated snow, Noah-MP generally underestimates ST, which is mostly influenced by the snow process. A systematic cold bias and large uncertainties in soil temperature remain after eliminating the effects of snow, particularly in the deep layers and during the cold season. The combination of roughness length for heat and under-canopy (below-canopy) aerodynamic resistance contributes to resolving the cold bias in soil temperature. In addition, Noah-MP generally underestimates top SLW. The runoff and groundwater (RUN) process dominates the SLW simulation in comparison to the very limited impacts of all other physical processes. The analysis of the model structural uncertainties and characteristics of each scheme would be constructive to a better understanding of the land surface processes in the permafrost regions of the QTP as well as to further model improvements towards soil hydrothermal regime modeling using LSMs.

Stratospheric ozone and water vapour are key components of the Earth system, and past and future changes to both have important impacts on global and regional climate. Here, we evaluate long-term changes in these species from the pre-industrial period (1850) to the end of the 21st century in Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 6 (CMIP6) models under a range of future emissions scenarios. There is good agreement between the CMIP multi-model mean and observations for total column ozone (TCO), although there is substantial variation between the individual CMIP6 models. For the CMIP6 multi-model mean, global mean TCO has increased from ∼ 300 DU in 1850 to ∼ 305 DU in 1960, before rapidly declining in the 1970s and 1980s following the use and emission of halogenated ozone-depleting substances (ODSs). TCO is projected to return to 1960s values by the middle of the 21st century under the SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, SSP4-3.4, SSP4-6.0, and SSP5-8.5 scenarios, and under the SSP3-7.0 and SSP5-8.5 scenarios TCO values are projected to be ∼ 10 DU higher than the 1960s values by 2100. However, under the SSP1-1.9 and SSP1-1.6 scenarios, TCO is not projected to return to the 1960s values despite reductions in halogenated ODSs due to decreases in tropospheric ozone mixing ratios. This global pattern is similar to regional patterns, except in the tropics where TCO under most scenarios is not projected to return to 1960s values, either through reductions in tropospheric ozone under SSP1-1.9 and SSP1-2.6, or through reductions in lower stratospheric ozone resulting from an acceleration of the Brewer–Dobson circulation under other Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs). In contrast to TCO, there is poorer agreement between the CMIP6 multi-model mean and observed lower stratospheric water vapour mixing ratios, with the CMIP6 multi-model mean underestimating observed water vapour mixing ratios by ∼ 0.5 ppmv at 70 hPa. CMIP6 multi-model mean stratospheric water vapour mixing ratios in the tropical lower stratosphere have increased by ∼ 0.5 ppmv from the pre-industrial to the present-day period and are projected to increase further by the end of the 21st century. The largest increases (∼ 2 ppmv) are simulated under the future scenarios with the highest assumed forcing pathway (e.g. SSP5-8.5). Tropical lower stratospheric water vapour, and to a lesser extent TCO, shows large variations following explosive volcanic eruptions.

Marine self-potential (SP) investigation is an effective method to study deep-sea hydrothermal vents and seafloor sulfide deposits. At present, one of the commonly used marine self-potential systems is a towed array of electrodes. Large noises are recorded when great changes in electrode distance and array attitude occur due to the complex seafloor topography. In this paper, a new multicomponent electrical field observation system based on an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) was introduced for the measurement of seafloor self-potential signals. The system was tested in a lake, and the multicomponent self-potential data were collected from there. Observed data involve the navigational information of the AUV, which could be corrected using a rotation transform. After navigational correction, measured data can recover the location of the artificial source using self-potential tomography. The experimental results showed that the new SP system can be applied to marine SP observations, providing an efficient and low-noise SP acquisition method for marine resources and environmental investigations.

This paper quantifies the pre-industrial (1850) to present-day (2014) effective radiative forcing (ERF) of anthropogenic emissions of NOX, volatile organic compounds (VOCs; including CO), SO2, NH3, black carbon, organic carbon, and concentrations of methane, N2O and ozone-depleting halocarbons, using CMIP6 models. Concentration and emission changes of reactive species can cause multiple changes in the composition of radiatively active species: tropospheric ozone, stratospheric ozone, stratospheric water vapour, secondary inorganic and organic aerosol, and methane. Where possible we break down the ERFs from each emitted species into the contributions from the composition changes. The ERFs are calculated for each of the models that participated in the AerChemMIP experiments as part of the CMIP6 project, where the relevant model output was available. The 1850 to 2014 multi-model mean ERFs (± standard deviations) are −1.03 ± 0.37 W m−2 for SO2 emissions, −0.25 ± 0.09 W m−2 for organic carbon (OC), 0.15 ± 0.17 W m−2 for black carbon (BC) and −0.07 ± 0.01 W m−2 for NH3. For the combined aerosols (in the piClim-aer experiment) it is −1.01 ± 0.25 W m−2. The multi-model means for the reactive well-mixed greenhouse gases (including any effects on ozone and aerosol chemistry) are 0.67 ± 0.17 W m−2 for methane (CH4), 0.26 ± 0.07 W m−2 for nitrous oxide (N2O) and 0.12 ± 0.2 W m−2 for ozone-depleting halocarbons (HC). Emissions of the ozone precursors nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds and both together (O3) lead to ERFs of 0.14 ± 0.13, 0.09 ± 0.14 and 0.20 ± 0.07 W m−2 respectively. The differences in ERFs calculated for the different models reflect differences in the complexity of their aerosol and chemistry schemes, especially in the case of methane where tropospheric chemistry captures increased forcing from ozone production.

A comprehensive field experiment measuring aerosol chemical and physical properties at a suburban site in Beijing around the 2019 Spring Festival was carried out to investigate the impact of reduced anthropogenic emissions on aerosol formation. Sharply reduced sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations during the festival holiday resulted in an unexpected increase in the surface ozone (O3) concentration caused by the strong O3-titration phenomenon. Simultaneously, the reduced anthropogenic emissions resulted in massive decreases in particle number concentration at all sizes and the mass concentrations of organics and black carbon. However, the mass concentrations of inorganics (especially sulfate) decreased weakly. Detailed analyses of the sulfur oxidation ratio and the nitrogen oxidation ratio suggest that sulfate formation during the holiday could be promoted by enhanced nocturnal aqueous-phase chemical reactions between SO2 and O3 under moderate relative humidity (RH) conditions (40 % < RH < 80 %). Daytime photochemical reactions in winter in Beijing mainly controlled nitrate formation, which was enhanced a little during the holiday. A regional analysis of air pollution patterns shows that the enhanced formation of secondary aerosols occurred throughout the entire Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) region during the holiday, partly offsetting the decrease in particle matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 µm. Our results highlight the necessary control of O3 formation to reduce secondary pollution in winter under current emission conditions.

The ‘puff-and-pump’ radiating divertor condition is a promising approach for the reduction of excessive thermal power loading on the divertor targets. The divertor supersonic molecular beam injection (SMBI) system installed on HL-2A strongly enhances the capacity of the divertor heat load control. This system has a faster time response than the divertor gas puffing (GP) system. Divertor heat load control capacity has been compared between these two techniques by experiments on HL-2A and simulations. Experimental results suggest that the divertor SMBI system reduces the divertor heat flux peak to a lower level with less time delay than that for the divertor GP system, owing to a higher injection rate and particle velocity. Simulations by SOLPS demonstrate that a high injection rate shortens the function time which is defined by the time interval between the arrival of the particles at the divertor plasma edge and the reduction of divertor electron temperature. High velocity of SMBI injected neutral gas particle also shortens the particle flight time to arrive at the edge. Less flight time and function time lead to a faster response of the divertor SMBI system compared to the divertor GP system. In addition, simulations by EMC3-EIRENE also suggest that, compared to the GP system, stronger heat load reduction of the SMBI system can also be caused by deeper deposition of gas source owing to its higher particle velocity.

The gas puff imaging diagnostic is used for the investigation of the poloidal flow and turbulent fluctuations at the plasma edge and scrape-off layer (SOL) on the HL-2A tokamak. The impact of resonant magnetic perturbations (RMPs) on the edge poloidal velocity ( ${V_\theta }$ ) are investigated and compared during the operation of a stair-like rising RMP coil current ( ${I_{{\text{RMP}}}}$ ). The application of the RMP is observed to modify the poloidal velocity significantly. When ${I_{{\text{RMP}}}}$ exceeds 4 kA, the turbulence poloidal velocity at the edge changes direction from electron to ion diamagnetic drift. This phenomenon is explained by the electron loss along the perturbed radial magnetic field $({B_r})$ with RMP, with the experimental evidence provided that the edge electric potential increases significantly. A strong impact of the RMP on the properties of plasma density fluctuations in the SOL is also observed. With RMP, both skewness and kurtosis are smaller in the SOL and large-scale turbulence structures (small ${k_r}$ and ${k_\theta }$ ) are suppressed in both edge and SOL. These results can improve our understanding of the interaction between RMP and edge turbulence and in particular, the edge poloidal flow.

This paper uses data from limited HL-2A Ohmic-plasma to answer the question of how turbulent transport broadens the heat flux width. A key issue in this study is the determination of the origin of scrape-off layer (SOL) turbulence. We develop the concept of the energy production ratio ${R_a}$ , which compares the flux of turbulence energy across the last closed flux surface (LCFS) to the net, integrated energy production in the SOL. The flux of turbulence energy (i.e. spreading) is measured directly, using Langmuir probes. Experimental data is used to evaluate ${R_a}$ . Results show that usually ${R_a} > 1$ , indicating that SOL turbulence is energized primarily by edge turbulence spreading. The exceptions—cases where ${R_a} < 1$ —are those with relatively stronger ${\mathbf{E}} \times {\mathbf{B}}$ shear near the LCFS. The latter inhibits both turbulence spreading and local SOL production, but has greater effects on spreading. High blob fraction in the turbulence correlates with large values of ${R_a}$ . The implications for heat flux width physics are discussed.

Recent progress towards an increased understanding of detached divertor physics has been made with the highly closed divertor geometry in HL-2A. Non-intrinsic impurities were injected into the outer divertor chamber, and increased divertor neutral pressure and enhanced volumetric energy loss in the divertor were observed. Meanwhile the neutral pressure in the main chamber decreased slightly, and neutral compression between the divertor and main chamber increased greatly. This led to divertor detachment with a low upstream plasma line-averaged electron density ( $\sim0.5{n_{{\text{GW}}}}$ ). In the H-mode, slight degradation of the core confinement, characterized by a decrease in plasma stored energy and pedestal pressure and an increase in edge-localized mode frequency, was observed, but the H-mode was still sustained well with H _98 > 1. Pedestal density fluctuation was increased during detachment, implying that the enhanced pedestal transport might be responsible for the degradation. During the divertor detachment phase, the impurities were well controlled in the divertor without strong radiation near the X-point region, and the main plasma density did not increase but decreased slightly; this could be a benefit of the highly closed divertor geometry. The experimental results suggest that a closed divertor geometry has the advantages of volumetric energy loss, gas pumping and impurity control in the divertor without significant effects on the plasma confinement, thus giving a wider operating window for divertor detachment.

Poor air quality is currently responsible for large impacts on human health across the world. In addition, the air pollutants ozone (O3) and particulate matter less than 2.5 µm in diameter (PM2.5) are also radiatively active in the atmosphere and can influence Earth's climate. It is important to understand the effect of air quality and climate mitigation measures over the historical period and in different future scenarios to ascertain any impacts from air pollutants on both climate and human health. The Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) presents an opportunity to analyse the change in air pollutants simulated by the current generation of climate and Earth system models that include a representation of chemistry and aerosols (particulate matter). The shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs) used within CMIP6 encompass a wide range of trajectories in precursor emissions and climate change, allowing for an improved analysis of future changes to air pollutants. Firstly, we conduct an evaluation of the available CMIP6 models against surface observations of O3 and PM2.5. CMIP6 models consistently overestimate observed surface O3 concentrations across most regions and in most seasons by up to 16 ppb, with a large diversity in simulated values over Northern Hemisphere continental regions. Conversely, observed surface PM2.5 concentrations are consistently underestimated in CMIP6 models by up to 10 µg m−3, particularly for the Northern Hemisphere winter months, with the largest model diversity near natural emission source regions. The biases in CMIP6 models when compared to observations of O3 and PM2.5 are similar to those found in previous studies. Over the historical period (1850–2014) large increases in both surface O3 and PM2.5 are simulated by the CMIP6 models across all regions, particularly over the mid to late 20th century, when anthropogenic emissions increase markedly. Large regional historical changes are simulated for both pollutants across East and South Asia with an annual mean increase of up to 40 ppb for O3 and 12 µg m−3 for PM2.5. In future scenarios containing strong air quality and climate mitigation measures (ssp126), annual mean concentrations of air pollutants are substantially reduced across all regions by up to 15 ppb for O3 and 12 µg m−3 for PM2.5. However, for scenarios that encompass weak action on mitigating climate and reducing air pollutant emissions (ssp370), annual mean increases in both surface O3 (up 10 ppb) and PM2.5 (up to 8 µg m−3) are simulated across most regions, although, for regions like North America and Europe small reductions in PM2.5 are simulated due to the regional reduction in precursor emissions in this scenario. A comparison of simulated regional changes in both surface O3 and PM2.5 from individual CMIP6 models highlights important regional differences due to the simulated interaction of aerosols, chemistry, climate and natural emission sources within models. The projection of regional air pollutant concentrations from the latest climate and Earth system models used within CMIP6 shows that the particular future trajectory of climate and air quality mitigation measures could have important consequences for regional air quality, human health and near-term climate. Differences between individual models emphasise the importance of understanding how future Earth system feedbacks influence natural emission sources, e.g. response of biogenic emissions under climate change.

As in many countries, in The Netherlands governmental organisations are acquiring 3D city models to support their public tasks. However, this is still being done within individual organisation, resulting in differences in 3D city models within one country and sometimes covering the same area: i.e. differences in data structure, height references used, update cycle, data quality, use of the 3D data etc. In addition, often only large governmental organisations can afford investing in 3D city models (and the required knowledge) and not small organisations, like small municipalities. To address this problem, the Dutch Kadaster is collaborating with the 3D Geoinformation research group at TU Delft to generate and disseminate a 3D city model covering the whole of the Netherlands and to do this in a sustainable manner, i.e. with an implementation that ensures periodical updates and that aligns with the 3D city models of other governmental organisations, such as large cities. This article describes the workflow that has been developed and implemented.

Among the digitalization processes which are being raised in Europe and in the world, the building permit process is seen as one of the priorities by municipalities, governmental institutions and standardization organizations. However, in current practice, the building permit issuing as well as the integration of geoinformation with BIM (GeoBIM) suffers from a number of complex sub-issues. These issues still remain and prevent the development of successful methodologies. In this paper, the building permit use case is explored within a project in close collaboration with the municipality of Rotterdam. A very specific case study in Rotterdam was selected as a starting point, which allowed us to develop the needed methodology for the implementation of an effective tool. In this paper we highlight the interpretation and formalization of regulation for building height, overhang and tower ratio. While these rules are specific to a zoning plan in Rotterdam, we believe that the methodology and encountered issues in formalizing the rules, applying the rules on delivered models and integrating various data sources (BIM and GIS specifically) are general to most building codes.

Indoor mapping attracts more attention with the development of 2D and 3D camera and Lidar sensor. Lidar systems can provide a very high resolution and accurate point cloud. When aiming to reconstruct the static part of the scene, moving objects should be detected and removed which can prove challenging. This paper proposes a generic method to merge meshes produced from Lidar data that allows to tackle the issues of moving objects removal and static scene reconstruction at once. The method is adapted to a platform collecting point cloud from two Lidar sensors with different scan direction, which will result in different quality. Firstly, a mesh is efficiently produced from each sensor by exploiting its natural topology. Secondly, a visibility analysis is performed to handle occlusions (due to varying viewpoints) and remove moving objects. Then, a boolean optimization allows to select which triangles should be removed from each mesh. Finally, a stitching method is used to connect the selected mesh pieces. Our method is demonstrated on a Navvis M3 (2D laser ranger system) dataset and compared with Poisson and Delaunay based reconstruction methods.

Chemistry plays an indispensable role in investigations of the atmosphere; however, many climate models either ignore or greatly simplify atmospheric chemistry, limiting both their accuracy and their scope. We present the development and evaluation of the online global atmospheric chemical model BCC-GEOS-Chem v1.0, coupling the GEOS-Chem chemical transport model (CTM) as an atmospheric chemistry component in the Beijing Climate Center atmospheric general circulation model (BCC-AGCM). The GEOS-Chem atmospheric chemistry component includes detailed tropospheric HOx–NOx–volatile organic compounds–ozone–bromine–aerosol chemistry and online dry and wet deposition schemes. We then demonstrate the new capabilities of BCC-GEOS-Chem v1.0 relative to the base BCC-AGCM model through a 3-year (2012–2014) simulation with anthropogenic emissions from the Community Emissions Data System (CEDS) used in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6). The model captures well the spatial distributions and seasonal variations in tropospheric ozone, with seasonal mean biases of 0.4–2.2 ppbv at 700–400 hPa compared to satellite observations and within 10 ppbv at the surface to 500 hPa compared to global ozonesonde observations. The model has larger high-ozone biases over the tropics which we attribute to an overestimate of ozone chemical production. It underestimates ozone in the upper troposphere which is likely due either to the use of a simplified stratospheric ozone scheme or to biases in estimated stratosphere–troposphere exchange dynamics. The model diagnoses the global tropospheric ozone burden, OH concentration, and methane chemical lifetime to be 336 Tg, 1.16×106 molecule cm−3, and 8.3 years, respectively, which is consistent with recent multimodel assessments. The spatiotemporal distributions of NO2, CO, SO2, CH2O, and aerosol optical depth are generally in agreement with satellite observations. The development of BCC-GEOS-Chem v1.0 represents an important step for the development of fully coupled earth system models (ESMs) in China.

Results from the fully and biogeochemically coupled simulations in which CO2 increases at a rate of 1 % yr−1 (1pctCO2) from its preindustrial value are analyzed to quantify the magnitude of carbon–concentration and carbon–climate feedback parameters which measure the response of ocean and terrestrial carbon pools to changes in atmospheric CO2 concentration and the resulting change in global climate, respectively. The results are based on 11 comprehensive Earth system models from the most recent (sixth) Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) and compared with eight models from the fifth CMIP (CMIP5). The strength of the carbon–concentration feedback is of comparable magnitudes over land (mean ± standard deviation = 0.97 ± 0.40 PgC ppm−1) and ocean (0.79 ± 0.07 PgC ppm−1), while the carbon–climate feedback over land (−45.1 ± 50.6 PgC ∘C−1) is about 3 times larger than over ocean (−17.2 ± 5.0 PgC ∘C−1). The strength of both feedbacks is an order of magnitude more uncertain over land than over ocean as has been seen in existing studies. These values and their spread from 11 CMIP6 models have not changed significantly compared to CMIP5 models. The absolute values of feedback parameters are lower for land with models that include a representation of nitrogen cycle. The transient climate response to cumulative emissions (TCRE) from the 11 CMIP6 models considered here is 1.77 ± 0.37 ∘C EgC−1 and is similar to that found in CMIP5 models (1.63 ± 0.48 ∘C EgC−1) but with somewhat reduced model spread. The expressions for feedback parameters based on the fully and biogeochemically coupled configurations of the 1pctCO2 simulation are simplified when the small temperature change in the biogeochemically coupled simulation is ignored. Decomposition of the terms of these simplified expressions for the feedback parameters is used to gain insight into the reasons for differing responses among ocean and land carbon cycle models.

It is important to understand how future environmental policies will impact both climate change and air pollution. Although targeting near-term climate forcers (NTCFs), defined here as aerosols, tropospheric ozone, and precursor gases, should improve air quality, NTCF reductions will also impact climate. Prior assessments of the impact of NTCF mitigation on air quality and climate have been limited. This is related to the idealized nature of some prior studies, simplified treatment of aerosols and chemically reactive gases, as well as a lack of a sufficiently large number of models to quantify model diversity and robust responses. Here, we quantify the 2015–2055 climate and air quality effects of non-methane NTCFs using nine state-of-the-art chemistry–climate model simulations conducted for the Aerosol and Chemistry Model Intercomparison Project (AerChemMIP). Simulations are driven by two future scenarios featuring similar increases in greenhouse gases (GHGs) but with “weak” (SSP3-7.0) versus “strong” (SSP3-7.0-lowNTCF) levels of air quality control measures. As SSP3-7.0 lacks climate policy and has the highest levels of NTCFs, our results (e.g., surface warming) represent an upper bound. Unsurprisingly, we find significant improvements in air quality under NTCF mitigation (strong versus weak air quality controls). Surface fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ozone (O3) decrease by -2.2±0.32 µg m−3 and -4.6±0.88 ppb, respectively (changes quoted here are for the entire 2015–2055 time period; uncertainty represents the 95 % confidence interval), over global land surfaces, with larger reductions in some regions including south and southeast Asia. Non-methane NTCF mitigation, however, leads to additional climate change due to the removal of aerosol which causes a net warming effect, including global mean surface temperature and precipitation increases of 0.25±0.12 K and 0.03±0.012 mm d−1, respectively. Similarly, increases in extreme weather indices, including the hottest and wettest days, also occur. Regionally, the largest warming and wetting occurs over Asia, including central and north Asia (0.66±0.20 K and 0.03±0.02 mm d−1), south Asia (0.47±0.16 K and 0.17±0.09 mm d−1), and east Asia (0.46±0.20 K and 0.15±0.06 mm d−1). Relatively large warming and wetting of the Arctic also occur at 0.59±0.36 K and 0.04±0.02 mm d−1, respectively. Similar surface warming occurs in model simulations with aerosol-only mitigation, implying weak cooling due to ozone reductions. Our findings suggest that future policies that aggressively target non-methane NTCF reductions will improve air quality but will lead to additional surface warming, particularly in Asia and the Arctic. Policies that address other NTCFs including methane, as well as carbon dioxide emissions, must also be adopted to meet climate mitigation goals.

The Beijing Climate Center Earth System Model version 1 (BCC-ESM1) is the first version of a fully coupled Earth system model with interactive atmospheric chemistry and aerosols developed by the Beijing Climate Center, China Meteorological Administration. Major aerosol species (including sulfate, organic carbon, black carbon, dust, and sea salt) and greenhouse gases are interactively simulated with a whole panoply of processes controlling emission, transport, gas-phase chemical reactions, secondary aerosol formation, gravitational settling, dry deposition, and wet scavenging by clouds and precipitation. Effects of aerosols on radiation, cloud, and precipitation are fully treated. The performance of BCC-ESM1 in simulating aerosols and their optical properties is comprehensively evaluated as required by the Aerosol Chemistry Model Intercomparison Project (AerChemMIP), covering the preindustrial mean state and time evolution from 1850 to 2014. The simulated aerosols from BCC-ESM1 are quite coherent with Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5)-recommended data, in situ measurements from surface networks (such as IMPROVE in the US and EMEP in Europe), and aircraft observations. A comparison of modeled aerosol optical depth (AOD) at 550 nm with satellite observations retrieved from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and the Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR) and surface AOD observations from the AErosol RObotic NETwork (AERONET) shows reasonable agreement between simulated and observed AOD. However, BCC-ESM1 shows weaker upward transport of aerosols from the surface to the middle and upper troposphere, likely reflecting the deficiency of representing deep convective transport of chemical species in BCC-ESM1. With an overall good agreement between BCC-ESM1 simulated and observed aerosol properties, it demonstrates a success of the implementation of interactive aerosol and atmospheric chemistry in BCC-ESM1.

The present work introduces a novel methodology to analyse non-uniform residual stresses in composite materials. For robust determination of stresses in complex structures made of different layers, it is first necessary to prove that residual stress analysis in a single layer structure can reliably be accomplished. In present work a unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced epoxy is investigated. For residual stress determination, the integral incremental hole drilling method is used. It is revealed that the standard evaluation formalism for non-uniform stress analysis in isotropic structures is not applicable. A novel methodology based on the formalism for uniform stress analysis in orthotropic materials is introduced and applied for determining non-uniform residual stress states in depth. For calibration, a known load is induced by bending of samples. By comparing data obtained with the known bending stresses, the reliability of measurements is analysed and the novel formalism introduced is validated.

Introduction The antipsychotic dosage of Chinese schizophrenia patients has rarely been studied, although nonstandard dosage has impact on prognosis. Objectives To describe the dosage of antipsychotics in China routine practice. Methods This was a retrospective cohort study using de-identified data from a Chinese mental health hospital. The included patients were adults (≥18 years) with at least one diagnosis of schizophrenia (ICD-10: F20) and one prescription of any antipsychotic between 2014 and 2019. Date of first identified antipsychotic prescription was defined as index date, patients were followed up until last prescription of antipsychotics, end of 2019, or discontinuation (>60 days without antipsychotic prescription), whichever was earliest. Dosage was summarized using defined daily dose (DDD), calculated by cumulative average daily dose (CAD) with a unit of DDDs/day, i.e., total DDDs of all antipsychotics in follow-up period divided by total days of follow-up. CAD was categorized into low (1.5 DDDs/day) groups. Results 13554 patients were included with an average follow-up of 269.9 days. Median CAD was 0.8 DDDs/day (IQR=0.5-1.3), patients with hospitalization during follow-up and used multiple antipsychotics at the same time had larger median CAD, 1.0 DDDs/day and 1.2 DDDs/days, respectively. There were 3245 (23.9%), 7627 (56.3%), and 2682 (19.8%) patients in low, moderate, and high groups, respectively. The median CAD of high dosage group was 2.5 DDDs/day (IQR=1.9-10.5). Conclusions CAD of most Chinese schizophrenia patients was low or moderate. Association between CAD and hospitalization and multiple concurrent antipsychotics merit further research.