Search

Sea lampreys (Petromyzon marinus) invaded the Great Lakes in the early twentieth century and caused considerable economic and ecological harm. People who fished the Great Lakes suffered crippling losses and successfully lobbied elected officials in Canada and the United States to create a sea lamprey control program which the Great Lakes Fishery Commission implements under the 1954 Convention on Great Lakes Fisheries. The control program relies on two primary methods: chemical lampricides and physical barriers. Sea lamprey control has been a tremendous success; although the urgency to act is apparent to certain publics and although control methods are deemed by professionals to be safe and effective, continued public advocacy for and acceptance of the control program is not ensured. Many people in the control program are concerned that the urgency to act is not commensurate with the risk sea lampreys continue to pose and that societal acceptance of the primary control methods could wane. This commentary reflects on issues of “shifting baselines” (changes in perceived risk) and the “social license to operate” (trust in authorities to make responsible decisions regarding current and planned control methods) and suggests a course to better understand these issues. Improved understanding of these issues will inform communication efforts for all involved in the control program. Moreover, the case examined here is potentially relevant and informative for other environmentally related actions where there may be erosion of the social license.

Unimpeded transfer and spread of invasive species throughout freshwater systems is of global concern, altering species compositions, disrupting ecosystem processes, and diverting economic resources. The magnitude and complexity of the problem is amplified by the global connectedness of human movements and the multiple modes of inter-basin transport of aquatic invasive species. Our objective was to trace the fishing behavior of anglers delineating potential pathways of transfer of invasive species throughout the vast inland waters of the Great Lakes of North America, which contain more than 21% of the world’s surface freshwater and are among the most highly invaded aquatic ecosystems in the world. Combining a comprehensive survey and a spatial analysis of the movements of thousands of anglers in 12 states within the US portion of the Great Lakes Basin and the Upper Mississippi and Ohio River Basins, we estimated that 6.5 million licensed anglers in the study area embarked on an average of 30 fishing trips over the course of the year, and 70% of the individuals fished in more than one county. Geospatial linkages showed direct connections made by individuals traveling between 99% of the 894 counties where fishing occurred, and between 61 of the 66 sub-watersheds in a year. Estimated numbers of fishing trips to individual counties ranged from 1199–1.95 million; generally highest in counties bordering the Great Lakes. Of these, 79 had more than 10,000 estimated fishing trips originating from anglers living in other counties. Although angler movements are one mechanism of invasive species transfer, there likely is a high cumulative probability of invasive species transport by several million people fishing each year throughout this extensive freshwater network. A comprehensive georeferenced survey, coupled with a spatial analysis of fishing destinations, provides a potentially powerful tool to track, predict, curtail and control the transfer and proliferation of invasive species in freshwater.

Understanding why private property owners take actions to conserve bats has become increasingly important in U.S. states where the fungus causing white-nose syndrome (Pseudogymnoascus destructans) has decimated bat populations. We surveyed property owners in three New York State counties (n = 2,500) and used multiple linear regression analyses to test predictors of intentions to conserve bats. Intentions to take actions that contribute to bat conservation directly were predicted by severity of rabies consequences, sense of bat conservation self efficacy, beliefs about responsibility for bat conservation, and attitudes toward bats (R² =.39). Intentions to take actions that conserve bats indirectly were predicted by biospheric value orientations, beliefs about responsibility for bat conservation, and attitudes toward bats (R² =.27). The relationship between beliefs about rabies and intentions to take actions that contribute to bat conservation highlights the need for coordinated risk communication between public health and wildlife conservation organizations.

The order in which individuals receive information about wildlife may influence their attitude toward wildlife differently. We explored order effects of a threat message that induced more fear versus a suffering message that elicited more compassion on attitude toward wildlife. Specifically, we focused on bats, a risk-laden species also suffering massive mortalities due to a disease affecting bat populations across the United States. We randomly assigned 1,506 U.S. adults to one of eight message conditions as part of a 2 (message order: suffering → threat vs. threat → suffering) × 2 (suffering messages) × 2 (threat messages) between-subjects factorial design or a control (no message) condition. We found a significant two-way interaction between message order and biospheric values on attitude toward bats. For people with high biospheric values, reading a suffering message first led to a more positive attitude than reading a threat message first, whereas reading a threat message first led to a more positive attitude than reading a suffering message first for people with low biospheric values. Compassion but not fear mediated these effects. Theoretical and practical implications are provided.

Many women of childbearing age, and pregnant and nursing women in particular, do not consume enough seafood to derive optimal health benefits for themselves and their children. We sought to identify how seafood consumption advice could be designed to encourage pregnant women to eat recommended amounts of seafood. In three focus groups with pregnant or recently pregnant American women, we examined reactions to three aspects of seafood consumption advice. First, we found focus group participants preferred gain-framed statements emphasizing benefits of taking action vs. loss-framed statements emphasizing costs of failing to take action. Many participants indicated the gain-framed statements would encourage them to eat seafood and increase their consumption. Second, we compared responses to a recommendation to eat seafood and a recommendation to eat lower mercury seafood because fear of mercury is a known barrier to seafood consumption by pregnant women. We found no clear preference in our focus groups for either message, suggesting potential value of both messages in communication. Lastly, we examined preferences for systems of categorizing seafood into different consumption categories where the number of categories and the number of species listed in each category varied. We found shorter, dichotomous lists of species to eat and avoid were preferred by some participants for their clarity and ease of use. Longer, more comprehensive lists with additional species and consumption categories (e.g., eat once a week), however, were preferred by many participants because they provided more options and were more likely to be used as a reference. These findings suggest using a layered approach to communication might be helpful by providing short, dichotomous lists of best seafood to eat and seafood to be avoided followed by a link to a longer, more complete list of recommended seafood to be eaten and seafood that should be avoided.

The impacts of aquatic invasive species (AIS) on the recreational fishery in the Laurentian Great Lakes are of concern to managers and policy makers. Some AIS have the potential to depress sportfish populations, reducing recreational fishing opportunities and damaging local economies. Alternatives that could reduce the threat of AIS could be costly. Assessments of how AIS could affect recreational fishing participation and the economic value derived from it would contribute to the evaluation of these alternatives. We assessed best-case and worst-case scenarios for how a range of AIS could affect recreational fishing participation and economic value. We utilized previously developed scenarios for how AIS could affect sportfish populations as input for a recreational fishing model developed by Ready et al. (2018) . Their model estimated changes in fishing participation and economic value from such scenarios. Given uncertainty in how AIS could affect sportfish, projected effects of AIS on economic value varied widely, with some scenarios likely to have minimal effects and others leading to losses of over $100 million annually. None of the scenarios would lead to a large percentage decrease in recreational fishing in the eight Great Lake states, largely because anglers have numerous inland fishing opportunities. Nevertheless, lakeshore communities dependent on Great Lakes fishing could still suffer considerable economic loss. Collectively the economic valuation of the range of scenarios narrows down the possible impacts on fishing and the economy that decision makers need to consider.

The spread of fish pathogens and aquatic invasive species (AIS) is an ongoing challenge in the Great Lakes region. Bait dealers can prevent the spread of fish pathogens and AIS through their business practices and by educating their customers. Little is known, however, about whether and how they fulfill these roles. Licensed bait dealers in the Great Lakes region were surveyed by mail during fall 2013 to assess their awareness and concern about fish pathogens and AIS, actions they took to prevent their spread, and factors influencing these actions. Most bait dealers were aware of AIS and fish pathogens, many were concerned about them, and held beliefs suggesting their desire to take action to prevent their spread. These concerns and beliefs, however, did not always lead to action. We found two factors, not previously examined, that affected the probability of actual behavior. First, we found differences in participation in business practices by whether or not the state/province had regulations pertaining to those business practices. We also found differences by state/province in the degree and type of communication methods used to educate their customers. Second, we found greater economic dependence on bait sales was associated with increased AIS-preventative business actions and communication with customers. If fishery managers want to increase the number of bait dealers taking action to prevent the spread of AIS and fish pathogens, they may wish to promote additional regulations in states and provinces that do not currently have them, or strengthen regulations already in place.

Women of childbearing age (WCBA) can attain health benefits of fish consumption while minimizing risks by following state and federal fish consumption guidelines, but many women avoid fish out of concerns about mercury exposure. This study tested the impact of brochures, informed by communication theory and research, to promote healthy fish consumption among licensed female anglers. We conducted a randomized, two-wave longitudinal experiment between May 2014 and September 2015 among 1,135 women ages 18-48 years (at baseline), drawn from a sample of licensed anglers in the Great Lakes region of the United States. We randomly assigned women to one of five groups, to either be sent one of four brochures in spring 2015 using a two (including a short personal narrative or not) by two (using certain or uncertain language) factorial design, or to a no-exposure control arm. Participants reported their fish consumption in summer 2014 and summer 2015 via an online diary. Exposure to brochure versions that included a short personal narrative helped move women whose baseline levels of fish consumption were furthest from federal recommendations closer to these guidelines; effects were clearest among women confirmed, by self-report or web tracking, to have seen the brochure. Narratives hold promise as a strategy to communicate effectively about the benefits of healthy fish consumption and risks of overconsumption among WCBA, but widespread dissemination may be necessary to achieve these effects.

Past research has suggested that urban anglers are a group at high risk of being exposed to contaminants from fish consumption. Fish consumption advisories have been used in many regions to encourage healthy fish-eating behaviors, but few studies have been designed to assess whether these advisories actually influence behavior as intended. We conducted a large-scale, randomized experiment to test the influence of an advisory brochure on urban anglers' fish consumption. We collected detailed information on anglers' fish consumption in three urban counties in the Great Lakes region in the summers of 2014 and 2015. We provided a treatment group with fish consumption guidelines in an advisory brochure before the summer of 2015 and compared their change in fish consumption to a control group. The brochure led to a reduction in fish consumption for anglers who ate the most fish; these anglers reduced their consumption of high-contaminant purchased fish (by ≥0.2 meals/summer for those in 72nd percentile of fish consumption or above), high-contaminant sport-caught fish (by ≥0.4 meals/summer for those in 87th percentile and above), and low-contaminant sport-caught fish (by ≥0.3 meals/summer by those in 76th percentile and above). The brochure also reduced sport-caught fish consumption among those anglers who exceeded the advisories in 2014 (by 2.0 meals/summer). In addition, the brochure led to small increases in sport-caught fish consumption (0.4-0.6 meals/summer) in urban anglers who ate very little sport-caught fish (≤1 meal/summer).

Accurate estimates of the amount and type of fish people eat are necessary to determine the health benefits and risks of consuming fish, and to assess compliance with fish consumption guidelines issued for fish affected by chemical contaminants. We developed a web-based and mobile-phone-enabled diary methodology to collect detailed fish consumption information for two 16-week periods in the summers of 2014 and 2015. We recruited study participants from two populations living in the Great Lakes region-women of childbearing age (WCBA) and urban residents who had purchased fishing licenses. In this article, we describe the methodology in detail and provide evidence related to participation rates, the representativeness of our sample over time, and both convergent validity and reliability of the data collection methods. Overall, 56% of WCBA and 50% of urban anglers provided complete data across both data collection periods. Among those who provided information at the beginning of Year 2, 97% of both audiences provided information throughout the entire 16-week period. Those who participated throughout the two-year period were slightly older on average (1.9-2.5 years) than other members of our original samples. We conclude that using diaries with web and smartphone technology, combined with incentives and persistent communication, has strong potential for assessing fish consumption in other areas of the country or for situations where the potential risks associated with fish consumption are substantial and the cost can be justified.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and many state advisory programs consider urban anglers at high risk of being exposed to contaminants through fish consumption because the urban poor may be dependent on fish they catch for food and lack access to non-contaminated fishing sites. Past research has supported this characterization of urban anglers, but most studies have been site-specific and limited to subsets of urban anglers. We used a mail survey and focus groups to (a) explore how urban anglers living in the Great Lakes region of the United States differed from rural and suburban anglers and (b) characterize their fishing patterns, fish consumption, factors influencing their fish consumption, and response to fish consumption advisory messages. Although we detected some differences between licensed urban, suburban, and rural anglers, their magnitude was not striking. Lower income urban anglers tended to consume less purchased and sport-caught fish than higher income urban anglers and were not at high risk as a group. Nevertheless, focus group data suggested there may be subpopulations of urban anglers, particularly from immigrant populations, that consume higher amounts of potentially contaminated fish. Although urban anglers in general may not require a special approach for communicating fish consumption advice, subpopulations within this group may be best targeted by using community-based programs to communicate fish consumption advice.

Urban anglers are considered a group at high risk of being exposed to contaminants from fish consumption. Past studies of urban anglers' fish consumption, however, have had significant limitations making it difficult to generalize their findings broadly and to assess the degree to which urban anglers are complying with advisory recommendations. We used a diary method to collect detailed information on fish consumption in three cities in the Great Lakes region for a 4-month period during the summer of 2014. We assessed how much fish anglers were consuming, whether they were complying with fish consumption advisories, and how fish consumption and advisory compliance varied for different demographic groups and in different locations. We estimated a mean of 1.12 meals/week of fish and 25.1–26.8 g/day of fish, and the amount of fish consumed varied by no > 25% from one site to another. Advisory exceedance was more variable, however, ranging from 7–10% to 27–40% in our three study sites. Fish consumption increased with age, education, and income, and was higher for non-whites than for whites. Advisory exceedance was higher for women, non-whites, and older anglers. At each site, the types of fish that contributed the most to advisory exceedance varied, which points to the benefits of community-specific (and resource-intensive) fish consumption advisories. Our findings could help fish consumption advisory programs tailor their advice to vulnerable populations and particular locations.

States in the Great Lakes region of the United States issue fish consumption guidelines for women of childbearing age (WCBA) to help them minimize the health risks to themselves and their potential offspring from eating fish contaminated with chemicals. We used diary methods to study 1395 WCBA who purchased fishing licenses in the Great Lakes coastal region to determine if they were aware of the guidelines and following them. We found that two-thirds of WCBA reported at least minimal awareness of the fish consumption guidelines, and those that reported awareness were more likely to hold beliefs consistent with the messages emphasized in the guidelines. WCBA reported eating less than one meal/week of fish with most of this fish purchased at a store or restaurant. On average, they consumed just 2.4 sport-caught fish meals over the 16-week study period. The average portion size for sport-caught fish meals eaten by WCBA was similar to that assumed by states when determining the guidelines. However, one-quarter of WCBA in the overall sample exceeded the guidelines, with rates as high as 41% exceeding the guidelines in Michigan and Minnesota. Additional outreach efforts may be needed to increase compliance with fish consumption guidelines, particularly among subpopulations that exceed the guidelines more frequently.

The Great Lakes are one of the most invaded aquatic ecosystems in the world, and the spread of fish pathogens and aquatic invasive species (AIS) has become a serious issue for fishery management in the Great Lakes. Our study applies the Drivers-Pressures-State-Impacts-Responses model (DPSIR) to identify social-ecological linkages in the spread of pathogens and AIS by anglers, boaters, and bait dealers in the Great Lakes. We developed a conceptual DPSIR model based on input by staff members in governmental agencies and non-governmental organizations that have been involved in the management of pathogens and AIS. The integration of managers' input to develop the model is a novel approach for understanding fisheries. Most previous studies using the DPSIR framework did not account for natural resource managers' input even though the DPSIR framework is frequently applied to provide information to these groups. The identified relationships in our model provide multiple entry points for empirical, interdisciplinary research. These studies would help understand the effectiveness of management responses to change human behaviors, and to understand and predict changes in the Great Lakes ecosystem and fishery. The model could also be used to promote understanding of the impacts of pathogens and AIS on the fishery, and to increase awareness of human behaviors that contribute to the continued spread. Future studies could further expand or replicate the model with input by other stakeholder groups such as bait dealers and/or anglers and boaters to identify if these groups share an understanding of the management problem and responses.

The expected impacts of invasive species are key considerations in selecting policy responses to potential invasions. But predicting the impacts of invasive species is daunting, particularly in large systems threatened by multiple invasive species, such as North America’s Laurentian Great Lakes. We developed and evaluated a scenario-building process that relied on an expert panel to assess possible future impacts of aquatic invasive species on recreational fishing in the Great Lakes. To maximize its usefulness to policy makers, this process was designed to be implemented relatively rapidly and considered a range of species. The expert panel developed plausible, internally consistent invasion scenarios for five aquatic invasive species, along with subjective probabilities of those scenarios. We describe these scenarios and evaluate this approach for assessing future invasive species impacts. The panel held diverse opinions about the likelihood of the scenarios, and only one scenario with impacts on...

The spread of aquatic invasive species (AIS) is an ongoing challenge in the Great Lakes region. Anglers play a pivotal role in preventing or contributing to the spread of these organisms. Anglers in the Great Lakes region were surveyed by mail during fall 2013 to assess their AIS-related awareness, knowledge, and concern as well as the actions they took to prevent the spread of AIS. Many anglers were aware of AIS, knowledgeable and concerned about them, and taking some actions to prevent their spread. However, certain actions, such as drying and disinfecting or rinsing equipment with hot water, were more difficult and were reported less frequently. Because many anglers already recognize the importance of taking action to prevent the spread of AIS, future outreach efforts may be able to deemphasize communication about the importance of taking action and focus more on strategies that will enable anglers to take these actions.

Women of childbearing age (WCBA) are advised by state, tribal, and federal agencies to limit their consumption of certain fish, in part, because of concerns about the ingestion of methylmercury and its impact on the development of fetuses. We studied the fish-eating habits of WCBA who had a fishing license and lived near the Great Lakes, where mercury in locally-caught fish is a concern, as these women were likely at greater risk of elevated mercury exposure than the general population. We used a web-based diary method to gather fish consumption data from WCBA anglers over a 4-month period in the summer of 2014. We estimated mercury intake based on reported mercury content of species consumed, frequency of consumption, and meal portion size, and calculated percent exceeding the USEPA reference dose (RfD). Based on these calculations, we estimated that study participants (n = 1395) ingested 0.031 ± 0.002 (95% CI) ug/kg/d of methylmercury (arithmetic mean). We also found that 3.4% of study participants exceeded the RfD when we averaged estimated intake over the 4-month study period. While most (82%) of the fish meals WCBA anglers ate were purchased fish meals generally low in mercury, study participants ingested a disproportionate amount of mercury from locally-caught fish meals (18% of meals contributed 37% of mercury intake). We estimated 11% of WCBA anglers who did not follow state and federal guidelines in effect at the time of our study exceeded the mercury RfD, whereas fewer than 1% of WCBA anglers who followed the guidelines exceeded the RfD. These findings highlight the importance of encouraging WCBA to follow guidelines from agencies for locally-caught fish, in combination with guidelines for purchased fish.

Concern over the potential transfer of aquatic nuisance species (ANS) between the Great Lakes basin and the Upper Mississippi River basin has motivated calls to re-establish hydrologic separation between the two basins. Accomplishing that goal would require significant expenditures to re-engineer waterways in the Chicago, IL area. These costs should be compared to the potential costs resulting from ANS transfer between the basin, a significant portion of which would be costs to recreational fisheries. In this study, a recreational behavior model is developed for sport anglers in an eight-state region. It models how angler behavior would change in response to potential changes in fishing quality resulting from ANS transfer. The model also calculates the potential loss in net economic value that anglers enjoy from the fishery. The model is estimated based on data on trips taken by anglers (travel cost data) and on angler statements about how they would respond to changes in fishing quality (contingent behavior data). The model shows that the benefit to recreational anglers from re-establishing hydrologic separation exceeds the costs only if the anticipated impacts of ANS transfer on sport fish catch rates are large and widespread.

In the wake of growing parallel interests in the North American Model of Wildlife Conservation (Organ et al., 2012) and the need for transformation of state fish and wildlife agencies to better ref...

We consider the implications of public trust administration principles for collaborative fish and wildlife management. Collaboration can increase the capacity of agencies to provide fish- and wildl...

Accurate estimates of the amount and type of fish people eat are necessary to determine the health benefits and risks of consuming fish, and to assess compliance with fish consumption guidelines issued for fish affected by chemical contaminants. We developed a web-based and mobile-phone-enabled diary methodology to collect detailed fish consumption information for two 16-week periods in the summers of 2014 and 2015. We recruited study participants from two populations living in the Great Lakes region-women of childbearing age (WCBA) and urban residents who had purchased fishing licenses. In this article, we describe the methodology in detail and provide evidence related to participation rates, the representativeness of our sample over time, and both convergent validity and reliability of the data collection methods. Overall, 56% of WCBA and 50% of urban anglers provided complete data across both data collection periods. Among those who provided information at the beginning of Year 2, 97% of both audiences provided information throughout the entire 16-week period. Those who participated throughout the two-year period were slightly older on average (1.9-2.5 years) than other members of our original samples. We conclude that using diaries with web and smartphone technology, combined with incentives and persistent communication, has strong potential for assessing fish consumption in other areas of the country or for situations where the potential risks associated with fish consumption are substantial and the cost can be justified.

Past research has suggested that urban anglers are a group at high risk of being exposed to contaminants from fish consumption. Fish consumption advisories have been used in many regions to encourage healthy fish-eating behaviors, but few studies have been designed to assess whether these advisories actually influence behavior as intended. We conducted a large-scale, randomized experiment to test the influence of an advisory brochure on urban anglers' fish consumption. We collected detailed information on anglers' fish consumption in three urban counties in the Great Lakes region in the summers of 2014 and 2015. We provided a treatment group with fish consumption guidelines in an advisory brochure before the summer of 2015 and compared their change in fish consumption to a control group. The brochure led to a reduction in fish consumption for anglers who ate the most fish; these anglers reduced their consumption of high-contaminant purchased fish (by ≥0.2 meals/summer for those in 72nd percentile of fish consumption or above), high-contaminant sport-caught fish (by ≥0.4 meals/summer for those in 87th percentile and above), and low-contaminant sport-caught fish (by ≥0.3 meals/summer by those in 76th percentile and above). The brochure also reduced sport-caught fish consumption among those anglers who exceeded the advisories in 2014 (by 2.0 meals/summer). In addition, the brochure led to small increases in sport-caught fish consumption (0.4-0.6 meals/summer) in urban anglers who ate very little sport-caught fish (≤1 meal/summer).

Local governments attempting to respond to environmental change face an array of challenges. To better understand policy responses and factors influencing local government capacity to respond to environmental change, we studied three environmental issues affecting rural or peri-urban towns in different regions of New York State: climate change in the Adirondacks (n = 63 towns), loss of open space due to residential/commercial development in the Hudson Valley (n = 50), and natural gas development in the Southern Tier (n = 62). Our analysis focused on towns’ progression through three key stages of the environmental policy process (issue awareness and salience, common goals and agenda setting, policy development and implementation) and the factors that affect this progression and overall capacity for environmental governance. We found that—when compared to towns addressing open space development and natural gas development—towns confronted with climate change were at a much earlier stage in the policy process and were generally less likely to display the essential resources, social support, and political legitimacy needed for an effective policy response. Social capital cultivated through collaboration and networking was strongly associated with towns’ policy response across all regions and could help municipalities overcome omnipresent resource constraints. By comparing and contrasting municipal responses to each issue, this study highlights the processes and factors influencing local government capacity to address a range of environmental changes across diverse management contexts.

Fish consumption advisories are issued by the federal government for women of childbearing age (WCBA). These advisories make recommendations about the amount and types of fish that should be consumed to provide the greatest health benefits to women and their children while avoiding risks from chemical contaminants. We used diary methods to study fish consumption patterns of 1395 WCBA in the Great Lakes coastal region who purchased fishing licenses, a group which has significant opportunity to eat larger quantities of fish. Very few members of this group reported exceeding the federal recommendations for total fish consumption (between 3% and 5% depending on assumptions about portion sizes), consumption of canned "white" tuna (0%), or consumption of "do not eat" species (4%). They did report eating more fish on average than recent national study estimates, but they did not report consuming as much fish as is recommended to obtain the greatest health benefits of fish consumption. Only 10-12% of study participants reported eating within the recommended range of 8-12oz. of fish per week, with 84-87% eating less than the recommended amount. Additional efforts are likely needed to encourage WCBA to eat more low-risk fish, even among this group of higher-than-average fish consumers.

Fish and wildlife disease outbreaks are increasing globally, negatively affecting wildlife, domestic animals, and humans. Responding to such outbreaks presents a challenge for fish and wildlife age...

Resolution of urban and suburban deer problems often depends on learning and co-management. Local newspapers may reflect the learning occurring in a community. Past authors have identified 4 primary types of learning (technical, conceptual, social, and political). We studied newspaper content related to deer management for insights about the types of learning occurring in selected regions in New York State. We analyzed 263 newspaper articles published between 2000 and 2006. We found that the majority of content related to learning focused on conceptual and technical learning, but relatively little, particularly early in the evolution of deer management issues, focused on social or political learning. Our results suggest that additional attention to social learning focusing on collaborative relationships and constructive dialogue among stakeholders by both communities and newspapers could be beneficial in the resolution of deer problems. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.

Authors have documented a "research-implementation gap" in conservation. Research intended to inform conservation practice often does not, and practice often is not informed by the best science. We used the literature on policy learning (i.e., literature attributing policy change to learning) to structure a study of how practice is informed by science in collaborative conservation. We studied implementation by U.S. states of state wildlife action plans. On the basis of 60 interviews with government and nongovernmental organization representatives, we identified 144 implementation initiatives for State Wildlife Action Plans that were collaborative. We conducted case studies of 6 of these initiatives, which included interviews of key individuals and analysis of written documents. We coded interview transcripts and written documents to identify factors that influence availability and use of scientific information. We integrated these factors into a model of collaborative conservation. Although tangible factors such as funding and labor directly affected the availability of scientific information, practitioners' ability and willingness to use the information depended on less tangible factors such as the quality of interpersonal relationships and dialogue. Our work demonstrates empirically that relationships and dialogue led to: (1) the sharing of resources, such as funding and labor, that were needed to carry out research and produce information and (2) agreement among researchers and practitioners on conservation objectives, which was necessary for that new information to inform action. Our findings can be understood in the context of broader concepts articulated in the policy-learning literature, which establishes that social learning (improving relationships and dialogue) provides the foundation for conceptual learning (setting objectives) and technical learning (determining how to achieve these objectives).

Our research explored patterns in the development of social networks serving as the foundation for collaborative conservation. We conducted four case studies of conservation efforts associated with State Wildlife Action Plans in the United States. Data were collected on conservation objectives, key players, and their roles and interactions. Networks evolved through identifiable phases, which we labeled: organizational loyalty, reconsideration, partnership formation, and partnership utilization. During the partnership formation phase, networks had well-defined memberships, relied on structured opportunities for interaction and dialogue, and devoted attention to rules for dialogue. This phase was particularly important in contexts with multiple actors with diverse interests. In the partnership utilization phase, network memberships became more open, relied less on structured opportunities for interaction, and dialogue and decision-making became less formal. Our results can inform efforts to foster collabora...

Effectiveness of government natural resource agencies depends on the capabilities of their employees. These capabilities may be maintained or enhanced through professional development activities, including involvement in scientific societies. The authors studied factors that influence whether U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Geological Survey biologists participate in a variety of professional development activities. Previous research has indicated that a tension sometimes exists between employees’ commitment to their professions (professional commitment) and their commitment to their employing organizations (organizational commitment). The authors explored how these two orientations related to professional development. The authors found that increases in engagement in a number of types of professional development activities were associated with increases in professional commitment and education. Decreases in engagement in some types of professional development were associated with increases in organizational commitment, however, suggesting that engaging in professional development may involve a trade-off between meeting one’s professional needs and satisfying obligations to one’s agency.

Membership in scientific societies is an avenue wildlife professionals may use to maintain and enhance their professional capabilities. We studied factors influencing United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and United States Geological Survey (USGS) biologists' membership in scientific societies in general and The Wildlife Society (TWS) in particular. We conducted an internet census survey of 3,755 USFWS professionals and 932 USGS Biological Resource Division professionals. The survey collected data on membership and participation in scientific societies as well as other variables that we theorized could influence membership. We used logistic regressions to identify factors correlated with the membership of wildlife biologists in TWS. A greater proportion of USGS biologists (90.2%) than USFWS biologists (51.8%) were members of scientific societies, and the likelihood of wildlife biologists belonging to TWS was higher in USGS. Factors most consistently correlated with membership in TWS inc...

Membership in scientific societies is an avenue biologists may use to enhance their professional capabilities. We studied factors influencing federal biologists' membership in scientific societies, including the American Fisheries Society. We conducted an Internet survey of 3,755 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and 932 U.S. Geological Survey professionals. A greater proportion of U.S. Geological Survey biologists (90.2%) than U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service biologists (51.8%) were members of scientific societies. The factors most consistently correlated with membership in the American Fisheries Society included minimal external constraints, supervisor support, and membership of friends, peers, and supervisors in scientific societies. These results suggest that membership in scientific societies is influenced by the organizational culture of agencies. Agencies seeking to increase their employees' membership in scientific societies will be most successful if they create a culture in which involvement...

We conducted case studies of three successful examples of collaborative, community-based natural resource conservation and development. Our purpose was to: (1) identify the functions served by interactions within the social networks of involved stakeholders; (2) describe key structural properties of these social networks; and (3) determine how these structural properties varied when the networks were serving different functions. The case studies relied on semi-structured, in-depth interviews of 8 to 11 key stakeholders at each site who had played a significant role in the collaborative projects. Interview questions focused on the roles played by key stakeholders and the functions of interactions between them. Interactions allowed the exchange of ideas, provided access to funding, and enabled some stakeholders to influence others. The exchange of ideas involved the largest number of stakeholders, the highest percentage of local stakeholders, and the highest density of interactions. Our findings demonstrated the value of tailoring strategies for involving stakeholders to meet different needs during a collaborative, community-based natural resource management project. Widespread involvement of local stakeholders may be most appropriate when ideas for a project are being developed. During efforts to exert influence to secure project approvals or funding, however, involving specific individuals with political connections or influence on possible sources of funds may be critical. Our findings are consistent with past work that has postulated that social networks may require specific characteristics to meet different needs in community-based environmental management.

Certain species of wildlife cause considerable damage and therefore receive management attention. Traditional management methods rely on lethal control, but fertility control is increasingly being advocated as a more humane alternative. Because wildlife management decisions are influenced by citizen input, it is important to understand what makes people support or oppose lethal control and fertility control. We studied six U.S. communities trying to manage large populations of white-tailed deer or feral cats and categorized the ethical arguments citizens used to support their positions on lethal and fertility control methods. We identified two broad categories of ethical arguments. Arguments in the “obligations to people” category focused on (1) decision-making procedures, (2) public policy decisions, and (3) management outcomes. Arguments in the “obligations to animals and the environment” category focused on (1) life, suffering, and death, (2) altered characteristics of animals, (3) individuals and comm...

Increasing numbers of urban and suburban communities are facing the problem of learning to manage large populations of white-tailed deer in close proximity to large numbers of people. Some communities have been trying to address such problems for decades, and what they have learned from their experience could help other communities just beginning to face these problems. This study used the policy learning literature to explore what key stakeholders learn as their communities manage deer and how this learning affects their management. Case studies of 6 communities with more than 10 years of deer management experience were conducted. Three types of learning (technical, conceptual, and social) were found to be important. These learning types were interrelated with social learning serving as the foundation for the other two. The learning process was more difficult in communities in which public attitudes did not support traditional management practices and in those in which the ownership of land on w...

Wildlife managers in the United States are devoting greater attention to wildlife in suburban areas, where wildlife in close proximity to people pose problems. Local community leaders and residents often demand to be involved with management decision-making. Wildlife managers attempt to facilitate development of community-derived management objectives and implement management actions tailored to local needs and circumstances. Promoting collaborative solutions in such a complex decision-making environment has several challenges: (1) individuals and groups involved in wildlife issues have markedly different attitudes and values regarding wildlife and its management, (2) participants in decision-making approach the process with differing expectations as to how they will be involved, and (3) the technical and social complexity of these issues demand the knowledge, experience, and skills of multiple players. These challenges for community-based wildlife management in suburban areas need not be viewed as insurm...

As public participation in environmental decisions has increased, natural resource management agencies have been challenged to involve stakeholders constructively in the resolution of a variety of contentious issues. This research examines how evaluative criteria, initially derived from theory and literature and then refined based on input from agency staff and stakeholders, can provide natural resource agencies with guidance for designing context-specific stakeholder involvement strategies. To provide illustrations, we conducted inquiries in two communities experiencing wildlife management conflicts. Results suggest that quality stakeholder involvement processes use scientific information, have genuine influence on decisions, treat citizens fairly, and promote informative communication and learning.

The Theory of Reasoned Action can be used to predict the types of information that will influence attitudes toward and support for novel suburban deer (Odocoileus spp.) management techniques such as contraception. Information that is relevant to individuals' “behavioral beliefs” about the important outcomes of contraception is most likely to be influential, but these priority outcomes will vary from person to person. Different individuals' attitudes, therefore, may be influenced by different types of information. We tested the effects of tailoring information to the concerns of stakeholders. We conducted 2 mail surveys of the same residents of Irondequoit, New York, 19 months apart. The first survey provided a pretreatment measure of attitudes toward contraception and identified respondents' concerns about contraception. The second survey provided a post-treatment measure of attitudes and was distributed in 3 versions—2 containing different types of information about contraception and 1 (without information) to a control group. We confirmed that information addressing stakeholder concerns was most likely to influence attitudes. Agency communication, therefore, is most likely to influence public attitudes if it is tailored so that it addresses the particular concerns of each important stakeholder group.

We compared the motivations and preferences of men and women toward citizen participation in wildlife-related decisions. Data were collected via a mail survey of past participants in New York State Department of Environmental Conservation citizen participation processes completed between 1992 and 1999. We explored gender differences in motivations for participation, preferred process characteristics, and criteria used to evaluate process success. Men's participation was more often motivated by a request from a wildlife-related entity. Women placed more importance on processes having unbiased facilitation and the opportunity for open exchange of ideas and information with the agency. Men placed more importance on the use of scientific information in decision making. Attained education level played an important role in observed gender differences. Different strategies are needed to fully engage both women and men in wildlife-related decision making processes.

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are managed to yield diverse impacts, including effects to ecosystems. Many conventional hunting systems manage deer abundance through rules that strive to produce recreation opportunities and an equitable distribution of antlered bucks among hunters. To protect against excessive harvests, antlerless deer harvests often are regulated through quotas. This approach is effective when deer productivity does not outstrip capacity of the hunter population to harvest required numbers of antlerless deer. In many areas of North America, abundance of white-tailed deer has increased dramatically in the past two decades, which has caused many wildlife managers to ask whether deer populations can be controlled with conventional harvest strategies. We used population reconstruction modeling to simulate deer populations from mixed hardwood forests in southern New York, determined antlerless deer harvests needed to stabilize or reduce populations, and evaluated whether c...

In recent years, many conservation organizations have been forced to operate with declining resources—having to do more with less. Working under worsening resource constraints, an increasing amount...

Conservation requires the ability to respond to change. Ongoing shifts in human activities, landscapes, and species abundance and distributions are occurring at rates and scales that challenge the ...

We compared how men and women made decisions about what options were most appropriate for managing an overabundant deer herd in Irondequoit, NY. Data were collected through a set of in-depth, semistructured interviews and a mail survey. Women and men evaluated deer management alternatives differently; women considered more criteria than men and were more concerned about the ancillary impacts of deer management techniques?the impacts those techniques would have on aspects of their community other than deer-related problems. Results are consistent with theories of gender differences in moral reasoning. Tomore fairly consider both men's and women's concerns when making management decisions, it is recommended that agencies: (1) consider gender when selecting stakeholders to participate in decision making; (2) emphasize deliberative approaches to citizen participation; (3) focus on both men's and women's concerns in communication efforts; and (4) recruit and retain more female professionals for their staffs.

Contraception has been advocated increasingly by residents of urban and suburban areas as an appropriate technique for managing local deer herds. Although knowledge about the technical aspects of contraception is increasing among professionals, little study of citizens’ attitudes toward and beliefs about contraception has occurred to date. We explored residents’ attitudes toward contraception in Irondequoit, New York. We identified the criteria residents used to evaluate deer management techniques and how they applied these criteria in evaluating the suitability of contraception. Criteria used to evaluate the suitability of deer management techniques varied among citizens preferring different types of management techniques. Knowledge about contraception was low among citizens, even those who supported it as a management alternative. Further citizen education about contraception and other management techniques is needed in suburban areas with ongoing deer management efforts. Information needs may ...

We conducted a case study of the citizen participation processes used by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) when deciding whether to reintroduce moose to New York. We studied how citizens perceived the fairness and quality of the process and identified the criteria on which they based their perceptions. Our work was grounded in research on the social psychology of procedural fairness. Research was conducted in three phases: a document analysis, a series of interviews, and a mail survey of citizens who commented on the issue. Citizens' perceptions of the fairness of the process were related to four criteria: DEC's receptivity to citizen input; the influence citizens had over the decision; the quality of DEC's knowledge and reasoning; and the degree to which relationships improved during the process. Perceptions of the fairness of the process were related to satisfaction with the process, perceptions of fairness ofthe decision, and satisfaction with DEC.

We evaluated the conceptual basis of a citizen participation program that was part of a process used to decide whether or not to reintroduce moose to northern New York. We used criticisms of liberal political theory to illustrate the potential weaknesses of basing policy decisions mainly on citizens’ preferences. The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) determined that it would make its decision about whether to reintroduce moose to northern New York on the basis of citizens ‘ preferences. This strongly influenced how DEC designed its citizen participation strategies. The strategies designed were appropriate for measuring citizens’ preferences, but not for encouraging citizens to develop informed opinions. We argue that for some natural resource policy decisions an expanded vision of citizen participation is necessary. Such a vision should be consistent with the work of Mark Sagoff on the role of values versus preferences, and should seek to discover what citizens think is right a...

Authors have documented a "research-implementation gap" in conservation. Research intended to inform conservation practice often does not, and practice often is not informed by the best science. We used the literature on policy learning (i.e., literature attributing policy change to learning) to structure a study of how practice is informed by science in collaborative conservation. We studied implementation by U.S. states of state wildlife action plans. On the basis of 60 interviews with government and nongovernmental organization representatives, we identified 144 implementation initiatives for State Wildlife Action Plans that were collaborative. We conducted case studies of 6 of these initiatives, which included interviews of key individuals and analysis of written documents. We coded interview transcripts and written documents to identify factors that influence availability and use of scientific information. We integrated these factors into a model of collaborative conservation. Although tangible factors such as funding and labor directly affected the availability of scientific information, practitioners' ability and willingness to use the information depended on less tangible factors such as the quality of interpersonal relationships and dialogue. Our work demonstrates empirically that relationships and dialogue led to: (1) the sharing of resources, such as funding and labor, that were needed to carry out research and produce information and (2) agreement among researchers and practitioners on conservation objectives, which was necessary for that new information to inform action. Our findings can be understood in the context of broader concepts articulated in the policy-learning literature, which establishes that social learning (improving relationships and dialogue) provides the foundation for conceptual learning (setting objectives) and technical learning (determining how to achieve these objectives).Resumen: Diferentes autores han documentado un “vacío de investigación-implementación” en la conservación. La investigación que intenta informar a la práctica de la conservación a menudo no lo hace, y la práctica a menudo no es informada por la mejor ciencia. Utilizamos la literatura sobre aprendizaje de políticas (i.e., literatura que atribuye cambios en políticas al aprendizaje) para estructurar un estudio de cómo la práctica es informada por la ciencia en conservación colaborativa. Estudiamos la implementación de planes de acción para vida silvestre en estados de E.U.A. Con base en 60 entrevistas con representantes de organizaciones gubernamentales y no gubernamentales, identificamos 144 iniciativas de implementación de Planes de Acción Estatales para Vida Silvestre que fueron colaborativas. Realizamos estudios de caso de 6 de estas iniciativas, que incluían entrevistas a individuos clave y el análisis de documentos escritos. Codificamos las transcripciones de las entrevistas y los documentos escritos para identificar factores que influyen en la variabilidad y uso de la información científica. Integramos estos factores en un modelo de investigación colaborativa. Aunque factores tangibles, como el financiamiento y labor, directamente afectaron la disponibilidad de información científica, la habilidad y disponibilidad de practicantes para utilizar la información dependió de factores menos tangible como la calidad de relaciones interpersonales y de diálogo. Nuestro trabajo demuestra empíricamente que las relaciones y el diálogo llevaron a: (1) compartir recursos, como el financiamiento y la labor, que fueron necesarios para llevar a cabo el proyecto y producir información y (2) acuerdos sobre objetivos de conservación entre investigadores y practicantes, lo cual fue necesario para que la información nueva informe a la acción. Nuestros hallazgos pueden ser entendidos en el contexto de conceptos más amplios articulados en la literatura de aprendizaje de políticas, que establece que el aprendizaje social (mejora de relaciones y diálogo) proporciona el fundamento del aprendizaje conceptual (fijar objetivos) y el aprendizaje técnico (determinación de cómo alcanzar esos objetivos).

Purpose – The purpose is to explore public participation as a means to overcome jurisdictional barriers in governance of trans-boundary wildlife management issues. Methodology/approach – We present one model, defining six philosophical approaches to public participation, then examine relationships between these approaches and traits of stakeholder communities, revealing three distinct governance paradigms: top–down governance, public input, and public engagement. These paradigms illustrate that the different approaches represent fundamentally different types of participation, not simply varying amounts of participation. Using case studies from the United States, we demonstrate how some state, federal, and local government institutions have successfully applied public input and public engagement models of governance to suburban white-tailed deer management. While both models can be used effectively, certain approaches may be preferable to others depending on specific management context, public participation goals, and target publics. Findings – Public input approaches appear better suited to addressing complex problems and communities of interest, while public engagement approaches may better resolve wicked problems that affect communities of place. Future research is needed to clarify the relationship between success of governance paradigms and contextual considerations. Originality/value of chapter – The chapter goes beyond many existing approaches to public participation and governance and presents interesting findings related to exurbanized and protected areas in the USA.