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1. 'I Didn't Understand, I'm Really Not Very Smart'--How Design of a Digital Tutee's Self-Efficacy Affects Conversation and Student Behavior in a Digital Math Game

Author

Tärning, Betty and Silvervarg, Annika

Abstract

How should a pedagogical agent in educational software be designed to support student learning? This question is complex seeing as there are many types of pedagogical agents and design features, and the effect on different student groups can vary. In this paper we explore the effects of designing a pedagogical agent's self-efficacy in order to see what effects this has on students´ interaction with it. We have analyzed chat logs from an educational math game incorporating an agent, which acts as a digital tutee. The tutee expresses high or low self-efficacy through feedback given in the chat. This has been performed in relation to the students own self-efficacy. Our previous results indicated that it is more beneficial to design a digital tutee with low self-efficacy than one with high self-efficacy. In this paper, these results are further explored and explained in terms of an increase in the protégé effect and a reverse role modelling effect, whereby the students encourage digital tutees with low self-efficacy. However, there are indications of potential drawbacks that should be further investigated. Some students expressed frustration with the digital tutee with low self-efficacy. A future direction could be to look at more adaptive agents that change their self-efficacy over time as they learn.

Published
2019

2. Assessing the Black Box of Feedback Neglect in a Digital Educational Game for Elementary School

Author

Tärning, Betty, Lee, Yeon Joo, Andersson, Richard, Månsson, Kristian, Gulz, Agneta, and Haake, Magnus

Abstract

Background: Previous research shows that critical constructive feedback, that scaffolds students to improve on tasks, often remains untapped. The paper's aim is to illuminate at what stages students provided with such feedback drop out of feedback processing. Methods: In our model, students can drop out at any of five stages of feedback processing: (1) noticing, (2) decoding, (3) making sense, (4) acting upon, and (5) using feedback to make progress. Eye-tracking was used to measure noticing and decoding of feedback. Behavioral data-logging tracked students' use of feedback and potential progress. Three feedback signaling conditions were experimentally compared: a pedagogical agent, an animated arrow, and no signaling (control condition). Findings: Students dropped out at each stage and few made it past the final stage. The agent condition led to significantly less feedback neglect at the two first stages, suggesting that students who are not initially inclined to notice and read feedback text can be influenced into doing so. Contribution: The study provides a model and method to build more fine-grained knowledge of students' (non)processing of feedback. More knowledge on at what stages students drop out and why can inform methods to counteract drop out and scaffold more productive and fruitful responses.

Published
2020
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4. Far from Success – Far from Feedback Acceptance? The Influence of Game Performance on Young Students’ Willingness to Accept Critical Constructive Feedback During Play

Author

Ternblad, Eva-Maria, Tärning, Betty, Goos, Gerhard, Founding Editor, Hartmanis, Juris, Founding Editor, Bertino, Elisa, Editorial Board Member, Gao, Wen, Editorial Board Member, Steffen, Bernhard, Editorial Board Member, Woeginger, Gerhard, Editorial Board Member, Yung, Moti, Editorial Board Member, Bittencourt, Ig Ibert, editor, Cukurova, Mutlu, editor, Muldner, Kasia, editor, Luckin, Rose, editor, and Millán, Eva, editor

Published
2020
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5. Supporting Low-Performing Students by Manipulating Self-efficacy in DigitalTutees

Author

Tärning, Betty, Haake, Magnus, and Gulz, Agneta

Subjects
social agency, educational software, teachableagent, math self-efficacy, math performance
Abstract

Educational software based on teachable agents hasrepeatedly proven to have positive effects on students’learning outcomes. The strongest effects have been shown forlow-performers. A number of mechanisms have beenproposed to explore this outcome, in particular mechanismsthat involve attributions of social agency to teachable agents.Our study examined whether an expression of high versuslow self-efficacy in a teachable agent would affect low-performing students with respect to their learning outcomesand with respect to a potential change in their own self-efficacy. The learning domain was mathematics, specificallythe base-ten system. Results were that the learning outcomesof low-performers who taught a low self-efficacy agent weresignificantly better than the learning outcomes of low-performers who taught a high self-efficacy agent. There wereno effects from the manipulation of self-efficacy expressed bythe teachable agent on changes of the low-performingstudents’ own self-efficacy.

Published
2017

6. Instructing a Teachable Agent with Low or High Self-Efficacy -- Does Similarity Attract?

Author

Tärning, Betty, Silvervarg, Annika, Gulz, Agneta, and Haake, Magnus

Abstract

This study examines the effects of teachable agents' expressed self-efficacy on students. A total of 166 students, 10- to 11-years-old, used a teachable agent-based math game focusing on the base-ten number system. By means of data logging and questionnaires, the study compared the effects of high vs. low agent self-efficacy on the students' in-game performance, their own math self-efficacy, and their attitude towards their agent. The study further explored the effects of matching vs. mismatching between student and agent with respect to self-efficacy. Overall, students who interacted with an agent with low self-efficacy performed better than students interacting with an agent with high self-efficacy. This was especially apparent for students who had reported low self-efficacy themselves, who performed on par with students with high self-efficacy when interacting with a digital tutee with low self-efficacy. Furthermore, students with low self-efficacy significantly increased their self-efficacy in the matched condition, i.e. when instructing a teachable agent with low self-efficacy. They also increased their self-efficacy when instructing a teachable agent with high self-efficacy, but to a smaller extent and not significantly. For students with high self-efficacy, a potential corresponding effect on a self-efficacy change due to matching may be hidden behind a ceiling effect. As a preliminary conclusion, on the basis of the results of this study, we propose that teachable agents should preferably be designed to have low self-efficacy.

Published
2019
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7. Review of Feedback in Digital Applications -- Does the Feedback They Provide Support Learning?

Author

Tärning, Betty

Abstract

Aim/Purpose: The goal of this paper is to examine digital applications used in Swedish schools and whether they fulfill their potential as support for learners. This is done by examining the kinds of feedback they provide and discussing if this feedback supports learning or not. Background: The paper targets one aspect regarding which educational apps can be of high value for learners and teachers, namely the feedback they provide. The paper also addresses the need for supportive feedback and reviews 242 apps with respect to what types of feedback they provide. Methodology: A sample of apps used in primary school was collected via email to schools in Sweden. The author evaluated each app with respect to what kind of feedback it provided. The article concerns both positive and negative feedback, with a focus on negative. The following types of feedback were evaluated; verification feedback, corrective feedback, elaborated feedback, encouraging feedback and result feedback. Contribution: This paper contributes to knowledge regarding how most apps only contain verification feedback (telling the student whether their answer was correct or not). In order to help a student while learning, verification feedback is not enough. Rather, previous research has shown that explanatory feedback is more beneficial for learning. Findings: Seventy-seven percent of all apps contained verification feedback, and only 12 % provided the student with some type of explanation as to why their answer was incorrect. Looking at previous research, this is not desirable if one wants the app to support learning and not only act as a testing device. Fifty-five percent of all apps also contained some type of encouragement, but none of this encouragement addressed the task or the effort the learners put into the task - something that would be preferable from a learning perspective. Recommendations for Practitioners: There is much to be gained for developers of educational software if they would make more use of the feedback in educational apps. As for now, the feedback is primarily suited for testing and not for learning. For users of apps (teachers, parents, and children) this paper shows that feedback can be and is an important factor to evaluate before deciding if the app is "worth" spending time on. Recommendation for Researchers: The research describes different types of feedback and their (dis)advantages. Impact on Society: The paper stresses that most feedback represented in apps today corresponds to a behavioristic approach comparable to instrumental conditioning by means of reinforcement. In essence, most apps miss the opportunity of treating the learner as an active and constructive being who would benefit from more nuanced feedback. Future Research: Previous research has shown that elaborated feedback is more beneficial for learning, but more research needs to be done here, the amount of elaborated feedback will most likely affect varying student groups and varying tasks in different ways. And more importantly, how can we make the students pay attention to and act upon the feedback provided to them.

Published
2018

11. Ascribed Gender and Characteristics of a Visually Androgynous Teachable Agent

Author

Kirkegaard, Camilla, Tärning, Betty, Haake, Magnus, Gulz, Agneta, Silvervarg, Annika, Hutchison, David, Series editor, Kanade, Takeo, Series editor, Kittler, Josef, Series editor, Kleinberg, Jon M., Series editor, Kobsa, Alfred, Series editor, Mattern, Friedemann, Series editor, Mitchell, John C., Series editor, Naor, Moni, Series editor, Nierstrasz, Oscar, Series editor, Pandu Rangan, C., Series editor, Steffen, Bernhard, Series editor, Terzopoulos, Demetri, Series editor, Tygar, Doug, Series editor, Weikum, Gerhard, Series editor, Goebel, Randy, Series editor, Tanaka, Yuzuru, Series editor, Wahlster, Wolfgang, Series editor, Siekmann, Jörg, Series editor, Bickmore, Timothy, editor, Marsella, Stacy, editor, and Sidner, Candace, editor

Published
2014
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12. Transferring Teaching to Testing – An Unexplored Aspect of Teachable Agents

Author

Sjödén, Björn, Tärning, Betty, Pareto, Lena, Gulz, Agneta, Hutchison, David, Series editor, Kanade, Takeo, Series editor, Kittler, Josef, Series editor, Kleinberg, Jon M., Series editor, Mattern, Friedemann, Series editor, Mitchell, John C., Series editor, Naor, Moni, Series editor, Nierstrasz, Oscar, Series editor, Pandu Rangan, C., Series editor, Steffen, Bernhard, Series editor, Sudan, Madhu, Series editor, Terzopoulos, Demetri, Series editor, Tygar, Doug, Series editor, Vardi, Moshe Y., Series editor, Weikum, Gerhard, Series editor, Goebel, Randy, editor, Siekmann, Jörg, editor, Wahlster, Wolfgang, editor, Biswas, Gautam, editor, Bull, Susan, editor, Kay, Judy, editor, and Mitrovic, Antonija, editor

Published
2011
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15. Challenges for deploying math intervention in already challenged early childcare centers

Author

Andersson, Annika, Tärning, Betty, Gulz, Agneta, Andersson, Annika, Tärning, Betty, and Gulz, Agneta

Abstract

By comparing the results from two language versions of a computer based intervention program (Magical garden, MG) we aim to learn how to best increase early mathematic skills in 4-5-year olds with a first language (L1, Arabic) different from the official language used in school (L2, Swedish). Research on acquisition of novel concepts favors learning in L1 followed by L2, to learning in L2 only (Perozzi & Sanhez, 1992). However, this has not been researched in mathematics even though often suggested (Clements, Sarama, Wolfe, & Spitler, 2013). The game is based on results by Griffin and colleagues (Griffin, Case, & Siegler, 1994) and focuses on promoting an understanding of early numeracy. Children learn by teaching a panda how to play the game, which is adaptive to their success rate. The game is socially inclusive a) everyone plays the same scenarios, though at different levels and b) the garden grows with amount played independent of level. By virtue of the experimental design, half of the children play the version hypothesized to be less effective. However, all ECCs will have free access to both versions after the intervention period. Previous studies show monolingual children using MG developing their number sense (Gulz, 2018). Here we will discuss the preliminary findings with bilingual children. Importantly, we will discuss our challenges when implementing the study at challenged ECCs. Interventions based on educational software can easily be scaled-up and teachers can deploy them even with little own knowledge and interest in math (Praet & Desoete, 2014).

Published
2021

16. Teaching Her, Him ... or Hir? Challenges for a Cross-Cultural Study

Author

Haake, Magnus, Silvervarg, Annika, Tärning, Betty, Gulz, Agneta, Hutchison, David, editor, Kanade, Takeo, editor, Kittler, Josef, editor, Kleinberg, Jon M., editor, Mattern, Friedemann, editor, Mitchell, John C., editor, Naor, Moni, editor, Nierstrasz, Oscar, editor, Pandu Rangan, C., editor, Steffen, Bernhard, editor, Sudan, Madhu, editor, Terzopoulos, Demetri, editor, Tygar, Doug, editor, Vardi, Moshe Y., editor, Weikum, Gerhard, editor, Goebel, Randy, editor, Siekmann, Jörg, editor, Wahlster, Wolfgang, editor, Vilhjálmsson, Hannes Högni, editor, Kopp, Stefan, editor, Marsella, Stacy, editor, and Thórisson, Kristinn R., editor

Published
2011
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17. Entering the black box of feedback neglect in a digital educational game for elementary school students

Author

Tärning, Betty, Lee, Yeon, Andersson, Richard, Månsson, Kristian, Gulz, Agneta, and Haake, Magnus

Subjects
Educational Sciences, Utbildningsvetenskap
Abstract

Background Previous research shows that critical constructive feedback, that scaffolds students to improve on tasks, often remains untapped. The paper’s aim is to illuminate at what stages students provided with such feedback drop out of feedback processing. Methods In our model, students can drop out at any of five stages of feedback processing: (1) noticing, (2) decoding, (3) making sense, (4) acting upon, and (5) using feedback to make progress. Eye-tracking was used to measure noticing and decoding of feedback. Behavioral data-logging tracked students’ use of feedback and potential progress. Three feedback signaling conditions were experimentally compared: a pedagogical agent, an animated arrow, and no signaling (control condition). Findings Students dropped out at each stage and few made it past the final stage. The agent condition led to significantly less feedback neglect at the two first stages, suggesting that students who are not initially inclined to notice and read feedback text can be influenced into doing so. Contribution The study provides a model and method to build more fine-grained knowledge of students’ (non)processing of feedback. More knowledge on at what stages students drop out and why can inform methods to counteract drop out and scaffold more productive and fruitful responses.

Published
2020

20. Young Children’s Experience and Preference of Feedback – Sense and Sensibility

Author

Tärning, Betty, Sjödén, Björn, Gulz, Agneta, and Haake, Magnus

Subjects
Human-Computer Interaction, Architecture, Educational Technology, Recursive Feedback, Teachable Agents, Mathematics, Media Technology, Educational Sciences, Social Sciences (miscellaneous), Utbildningsvetenskap, Computer Science Applications, Education
Abstract

This study explored the effects of adding visual continuous feedback in the form of feedback bars to a teachable-agent based learning game in mathematics. Forty-five (45) children, 8- to 12-years-old, from three Swedish school classes used the game during four math lessons. The focus was on how feedback to the students regarding their teachable agents learning progression – and different detailedness of such feedback – affects how the students (in a teacher role) experience the learning game. The results suggest that students were positive towards receiving immediate and continuous feedback, but their preferences with respect to the detailedness of the feedback differed according to their age. We found a divergence as to the preferred number of bars, where the 3rd and 5th graders preferred 1 or 3 bars but where the 2nd graders preferred the more detailed version (6 bars) despite their lack of understanding of what the different bars represented.

Published
2019

24. Young Children’s Experience and Preference of Feedback – Sense and Sensibility

Author

Tärning, Betty, Sjödén, Björn, Gulz, Agneta, Haake, Magnus, Tärning, Betty, Sjödén, Björn, Gulz, Agneta, and Haake, Magnus

Abstract

This study explored the effects of adding visual continuous feedback in the form of feedback bars to a teachable-agent based learning game in mathematics. Forty-five (45) children, 8- to 12-years-old, from three Swedish school classes used the game during four math lessons. The focus was on how feedback to the students regarding their teachable agents learning progression – and different detailedness of such feedback – affects how the students (in a teacher role) experience the learning game. The results suggest that students were positive towards receiving immediate and continuous feedback, but their preferences with respect to the detailedness of the feedback differed according to their age. We found a divergence as to the preferred number of bars, where the 3rd and 5th graders preferred 1 or 3 bars but where the 2nd graders preferred the more detailed version (6 bars) despite their lack of understanding of what the different bars represented.

Published
2018

27. Supporting low-performing students by manipulating self-efficacy in digital tutees

Author

Tärning, Betty, Haake, Magnus, Gulz, Agneta, Tärning, Betty, Haake, Magnus, and Gulz, Agneta

Abstract

Educational software based on teachable agents has repeatedly proven to have positive effects on students’ learning outcomes. The strongest effects have been shown for low-performers. A number of mechanisms have been proposed to explore this outcome, in particular mechanisms that involve attributions of social agency to teachable agents. Our study examined whether an expression of high versus low self-efficacy in a teachable agent would affect low-performing students with respect to their learning outcomes and with respect to a potential change in their own self-efficacy. The learning domain was mathematics, specifically the base-ten system. Results were that the learning outcomes of low-performers who taught a low self-efficacy agent were significantly better than the learning outcomes of low-performers who taught a high self-efficacy agent. There were no effects from the manipulation of self-efficacy expressed by the teachable agent on changes of the low-performing students’ own self-efficacy.

Published
2017

29. Simulatorträning som ett redskap för att förbättra procedurell kunskap

Author

Tärning, Betty

Subjects
METI, Automatiska processer, Procedurell kunskap, Anestesi, Human Computer Interaction, Människa-datorinteraktion (interaktionsdesign)
Abstract

Anestesören arbetar i en miljö som är dynamisk och komplex vilket gör att det krävs att de kan utföra sekvenser av moment på automatik eftersom det oftast inte finns tid till djupare beslutsöverläggningar. Vid Huddinge Unviersitetssjukhus finns METI som är en patientsimulator. Denna simulator används idag för att öva medicine kandidater i att ge anestesi. Detta arbete undersöker om simulatorträning kan förbättra medicine kandidaters procedurella färdigheter. Undersökningen är en enkätundersökning där frågor som sökte ta reda på deltagarnas procedurella ställdes. Enkäten delades ut till deltagare som fått undervisning i simulatorn och till en grupp deltagare som endast fått traditionell undervisning. Utifrån dessa enkätsvar gjordes en kvalitativ analys där simulatorgruppens enkätsvar jämfördes för att se om gruppen lärt sig något från sin simulatorträning. Det gjordes även en kvantitativ undersökning där ett t-test räknades ut för att se om simulatorgruppens och kontrollgruppens medelvärden var signifikanta. Detta t-test blev statistiskt signifikant

Published
2002

30. Off-task Engagement in a Teachable Agent based Math Game

Author

Tärning, Betty, Haake, Magnus, Gulz, Agneta, Tärning, Betty, Haake, Magnus, and Gulz, Agneta

Abstract

A previous study compared two student groups that played a mathematics game based on a teachable agent. One group played with, and the other without, the inclusion of a social conversation module: a chat between the student and the teachable agent. Results were that students who used the game with the chat included had a more positive experience of the game and learned more in the sense of teaching their agent better. However, patterns dif­fered between sub-groups of students. Low-achievers did not prefer the game with the chat included, whereas high- and mid-achievers did, but simultaneously low-achievers tended to chat more. Low-achievers tended not to use the options of not starting the chat or quitting a chat beforehand as much as high- and mid-achievers did. In this paper we pursue a more de­tailed analysis of the students’ conversational behavior in the chat. The analytic focus is on the notion of engagement. Results point towards differences between the student groups in their engagement in the off-task conversation, that in turn can help explain the previous somewhat paradoxical result., K2D2-projektet; Kunskap och Kompetens - Digitala Dialoger

Published
2011

31. Pedagogical Agents : Pedagogical Interventions via Integration of Task-oriented and Socially Oriented Conversation

Author

Silvervarg, Annika, Haake, Magnus, Pareto, Lena, Tärning, Betty, Gulz, Agneta, Silvervarg, Annika, Haake, Magnus, Pareto, Lena, Tärning, Betty, and Gulz, Agneta

Abstract

The paper discusses the motivation for and outcome of the addition of socially oriented so called “off-task” conversational abilities to an existing “teachable agent” (TA) in an educational mathematics game. The purpose of the extension is to affect constructs known to promote learning, such as self-efficacy and engagement, as well as enhancing students’ experiences of the game. A comparison of students that played the educational game with the off-task interaction included to those who played without it, indicate that the former had a more positive experience of the game, and that they also learnt more in the sense of teaching their TA better. The potential for pedagogical interventions in this and similar systems is discussed as well as differences found between high- and low-achievers., K2D2-projektet, Kunskap och Kompetens - Digitala Dialoger

Published
2011

32. Teaching Her, Him…or Hir? Challenges for a Cross-Cultural Study

Author

Haake, Magnus, Silvervarg, Annika, Tärning, Betty, Gulz, Agneta, Haake, Magnus, Silvervarg, Annika, Tärning, Betty, and Gulz, Agneta

Abstract

The paper discusses some cultural considerations that we stand before in developing and exploiting an agent based educational software for use by Swedish and American students, age 11-14. The reported cultural challenges arise in software develop­ment, study designs, and decisions on actual pedagogical use in the two cultural settings., K2D2-projektet, Kunskap och Kompetens- Digitala Dialoger

Published
2011
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35. Choice blindness as a new tool to study preference change

Author

Tärning, Betty and Tärning, Betty

Abstract

Recent research has shown that we might not be as aware of our choices as we believe ourselves to be - a phenomenon called choice blindness (Johansson et al, 2005). In this thesis I replicate and extend these results by showing that choice blindness can be used to unconsciously influence preferences. An experiment with four conditions was conducted. In all conditions, participants were shown two series of pictures of female faces, and were instructed to point to the one they found the most attractive. On some pairs they were also instructed to verbalize the reason behind their choice. Unknown to the participants on certain trial a card trick was used to covertly exchange one face for the other. In the second condition an extended verbal report was required. In the third condition a verbal report and an attractiveness rating was required. Finally, the fourth condition was a combination of condition two and three. The results showed (i) that in the card trick trials the participants often failed to notice the mismatch between their intended choice and the manipulated outcome, and (ii) that the outcome of the mismatched trials exerted a strong influence on the second choices made by the participants, and (iii) that this effect was moderated by the type and amount of feedback provided in the manipulated trials.

Published
2007

36. Visual Gender and Its Motivational and Cognitive Effects : a User Study

Author

Gulz, Agneta, Haake, Magnus, Tärning, Betty, Gulz, Agneta, Haake, Magnus, and Tärning, Betty

Abstract

Cognitive and motivational effects of more neutral or androgynous-looking virtual characters versus more pronouncedly feminine-looking or masculine-looking virtual characters are explored. In a user study, 158 students aged 17-19 encountered four virtual characters that were visually manipulated to represent gender stereotypicality versus androgyny. One aim was to explore students' attitudes towards the different characters as seen in how they ranked them as preferred presenters and how they articulated their arguments for doing so. Another aim was to look for patterns as to which character(s) influenced female and male students most positively with respect to their attitudes towards a university level computer engineering programme. The combination of these two aims allowed us to compare more conscious and articulated with less conscious and unarticulated, user responses. Results from the study are presented and discussed. We conclude by pointing towards future research and applications.

Published
2007

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