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Global environmental degradation, and the diverse and intense interactions between irrigation and the environment, are prompting the sector to play a more active role towards sustainability. This paper builds on ICID's 2030 vision on a more sustainable irrigation sector. It recaps the various environmental impacts of irrigation systems and calls for a threefold paradigm shift: the objectives of irrigation, its practices, and the ways to assess its impacts must evolve. The paper critically analyses the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs') framework, which provides a prompting set of orientations, yet with little consideration of the systemic nature of irrigation. The paper promotes more operational frameworks: nexus thinking and the ecosystem services' framework, since both allow for systemic approaches, and for developing trade‐offs. The paper also discusses the merits of life cycle analysis (LCA) for environmental impact assessment. The benefits gained through these alternative approaches are illustrated in two cases of environmental impacts: return flow and salinization. Finally, the paper suggests combining these approaches with three principles for fostering a true paradigm shift in agricultural water use: developing and using suitable metrics, combining models to reconnect economic concerns with environmental ones, and considering larger territories and ecosystems to cater for interactions with the environment.

We review recent studies of cavity switching induced by the optical injection of free carriers in micropillar cavities containing quantum dots. Using the quantum dots as a broadband internal light source and a streak camera as detector, we track the resonance frequencies for a large set of modes with picosecond time resolution. We report a record-fast switch-on time constant (1.5 ps) and observe major transient modifications of the modal structure of the micropillar on the 10 ps time scale: mode crossings are induced by a focused symmetric injection of free carriers, while a lifting of several mode degeneracies is observed when off-axis injection breaks the rotational symmetry of the micropillar. We show theoretically and experimentally that cavity switching can be used to tailor the dynamic properties of the coupled QD–cavity system. We report the generation of ultrashort spontaneous emission pulses (as short as 6 ps duration) by a collection of frequency-selected QDs in a switched pillar microcavity. These pulses display a very small coherence length, attractive for ultrafast speckle-free imaging. Moreover, the control of QD-mode coupling on the 10 ps time scale establishes cavity switching as an appealing resource for quantum photonics.

The aim of this research was to analyze greenhouse gas (GHG) emission in paddy rice–based cropping systems of the Middle Indo–Gangetic plains in India. Two paddy rice–based systems, namely paddy rice–wheat (PW) and paddy rice–potato–fallow (PP), were studied for GHG emission, net return (NR) and eco–efficiencies (EE). The PW (3354.9 ​± ​133.7 kgCO2eq ha−1 y−1) and PP (5096.3 ​± ​11.6 kgCO2eq ha−1 y−1) systems were observed to have significantly different GHG emissions. The most significant contributor to the GHG pool was fertilizer production, contributing about 40.3% and 46.1% in the PW and PP systems, respectively. On–farm direct nitrous oxide (N2O) emission was the second largest contributor to the GHG emission pool. Farm sizes significantly affected GHG emissions in the PW system, and medium farms (>3 ​ha) had higher GHG emission compared to other farm sizes. While the NR in the PP system was significantly higher (2504.3 ​± ​65.6 USD ha−1 y−1) compared to the PW system (1687.1 ​± ​90.6 USD ha−1 y−1) owing to better market prices of potato crop, it also performed slightly better on the EE scale (0.52 and 0.50 USD kgCO2 eq−1, respectively). In the PW system, comparatively larger farms were more eco–efficient than the smaller farms. However, the EE values for different farm sizes in the PP system were numerically and statistically similar. The results reported in this study may be beneficial to farmers to make decisions pertinent to sustainable management of agro inputs in paddy–based cropping systems and collective farming. Moreover, these results can even be utilized by governmental and non–governmental organizations for deciding support/subsidies to farmers in the study area.

We report on the precise determination of both the band gap Eg and the characteristic energy U of the band tail of localized defect states, for monocrystalline Ag2ZnSnSe4. Both photoluminescence excitation and time-resolved photoluminescence studies lead to Eg = 1223 ± 3 meV, and U = 20 ± 3 meV, at 6 K. The interest of the methodology developed here is to account quantitatively for the time-resolved photoluminescence and photoluminescence excitation spectra by only considering standard textbook density of states, and state filling effects. Such an approach is different from the one most often used to evaluate the energy extent of the localized states, namely by measuring the energy shift between the photoluminescence emission and the excitation one-the so-called Stokes shift. The advantage of the present method is that no arbitrary choice of the low power excitation has to be done to select the photoluminescence emission spectrum and its peak energy.

The use and cost of energy in agriculture have increased, making it necessary to make current agricultural practices more energy efficient. To do this, the prevailing systems must be thoroughly analysed. Studies have focused on assessing the energy performance of individual crops, but notably few studies have investigated different cropping systems. This paper aims to assess the energy performance of the two most used cropping systems of the Indo-Gangetic plains in India, namely Paddy rice–Wheat (PW) and Paddy rice–Potato (PP). The PW system was more energy efficient with Energy Use Efficiency (EUE) of 6.87 ± 1.7 compared to 3.61 ± 0.58 for the PP system. Higher Energy Efficiency Ratio (EERM) (3.94 ± 1.30) and Specific Energy(4.39 ± 2.06) (SE) were reported for the PW system, compared to 2.62 ± 0.47 and 2.15 ± 0.35 respectively for the PP system. Fertiliser use accounted for the highest input energy consumption in both systems, accounting for 58% and 51% of the energy consumed in PW and PP systems respectively, followed by fuel, seeds and electricity. The net income from the PP system (2295.7 ± 457.4 USD.ha−1.yr−1) was higher than that from the PW system (1555.4 ± 856.6 USD.ha−1.yr−1). The higher return of PP system was attributed to higher yield and better market price for the potato produce. There were no significant differences reported for various energy and economic parameters within different farm sizes in the PP system. However, for PW system, small farms were energy efficient while larger farms were economically efficient. Keywords: Energy input–output analysis, Indo-Gangetic plains, Energy use efficiency, Cropping system, Paddy rice, Wheat and potato

While the world is facing unprecedented transitions and threats we need to deeply rethink the relationships between water and energy use, food production, and ecosystem protection. This includes the development and deployment of ambitious, out-of-the-box solutions towards sustainable development. This paper is based upon recent discussions before and during the 2nd World Irrigation Forum in Chiang Mai, Thailand. This paper takes stock of current knowledge and analyses the most recent trends in water, irrigation and the environment. It discusses the requirements for strategic approaches and the contributions of irrigation and drainage to Sustainable Development Goals. Firstly, we concentrated on renewed and more balanced relationships between water, energy, food and ecosystems in the context of irrigation and drainage management. Secondly, we assessed the positive and negative impact of agricultural water use in order to demonstrate and improve its performance. Given exacerbated competition and water resource scarcity, a better understanding of the positive effects and valuable ecosystem services provided by irrigation and drainage systems could pave the way to maximizing benefits and safeguarding the environment. Lastly, we tried to address the role of stakeholders in irrigation governance. This includes active contribution to policy-making and planning, incentives, and most importantly, capacity development.

Sécurité alimentaire, emplois, transition écologique des modes de production et de consommation... L'agro-écologie pourrait être l'une des solutions pour répondre aux défis à venir de l'humanité. Inscrite dans les 17 Objectifs du développement durable, elle nécessite un engagement de tous. Pour satisfaire les besoins alimentaires et économiques des communautés rurales et urbaines en croissance, répondre à des consommateurs de plus en plus exigeants, préserver les ressources naturelles et s'adapter au changement climatique, il devient urgent de produire différemment. Au cours des dix dernières années, le Cirad et l'AFD ont conduit des expériences de transition agro-écologique avec les producteurs, chercheurs, professionnels du développement et décideurs de nombreux pays du Sud. Ils livrent leurs réflexions sur l'avenir de l'agro-écologie comme moyen pour les agricultures du Sud de s'adapter aux changements globaux et analysent les conditions de réussite de la transition agro-écologique.

This study investigates the balance between economic and environmental performances of cotton cropping systems in Southern Punjab, Pakistan. Eco-efficiency analysis was performed using Data Envelopment Analysis to integrate economic and environmental performances, which were assessed through life cycle assessment. All 169 cotton cropping systems were individually analyzed. Special attention was paid to farm size as a possible factor of performances variation. The results show that pesticides and fertilizer use, field emissions, field operations and irrigation are the main sources of environmental impacts. It reveals that production of 1 kg of seed cotton delivered at farm gate generates a global warming potential of 3–3.4 kg CO 2e and requires 5–6 L of water. Eco-efficiency estimates of small, medium and large sized farms computed on per hectare basis are 0.86, 0.74 and 0.78, respectively, and 0.51, 0.52 and 0.50 respectively when computed on the basis of kilogram of seed cotton. No significant differences of eco-efficiencies per functional unit were observed across farm size categories. Small farms' higher profits counterbalance their significantly higher levels of eutrophication, and balance its overall eco-efficiency with other farm categories. A trade-off analysis tried to identify the farms that would epitomize sustainable cotton production; it shows that it is almost impossible to combine high economic return with low environmental impacts under current context. However some recommendations have been formulated with regards to pesticides and fertilizers use, which may be significantly reduced with no effect on yield, and potentially reduce environmental impacts.

International audience; Purpose Salinisation is a threat not only to arable land but also to freshwater resources. Nevertheless, salinisation impacts have been rarely and only partially included in life cycle assessment (LCA) so far. The objectives of this review paper were to give a comprehensive overview of salinisation mechanisms due to human interventions, analyse the completeness, relevance and scientific robustness of existing published methods addressing salinisation in LCA and provide recommendations towards a comprehensive integration of salinisation within the impact modelling frameworks in LCA.Methods First, with the support of salinisation experts and related literature, we highlighted multiple causes of soil and water salinisation and presented induced effects on human health, ecosystems and resources. Second, existing life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) methods addressing salinisation were analysed against the International Reference Life Cycle Data System analysis grid of the European Commission. Third, adopting a holistic approach, the modelling options for salinisation impacts were analysed in agreement with up-to-date LCIA frameworks and models.Results and discussion We proposed a categorisation of salinisation processes in four main types based on salinisation determinism: land use change, irrigation, brine disposal and overuse of a water body. For each salinisation type, key human management and biophysical factors involved were identified. Although the existing methods addressing salinisation in LCA are important and relevant contributions, they are often incomplete with regards to both the salinisation pathways they address and their geographical validity. Thus, there is a lack of a consistent framework for salinisation impact assessment in LCA. In analysing existing LCIA models, we discussed the inventory and impact assessment boundary options. The land use/land use change framework represents a good basis for the integration of salinisation impacts due to a land use change but should be completed to account for off-site impacts. Conversely, the land use/land use change framework is not appropriate to model salinisation due to irrigation, overuse of a water body and brine disposal. For all salinisation pathways, a bottom-up approach describing the environmental mechanisms (fate, exposure and effect) is recommended rather than an empirical or top-down approach because (i) salts and water are mobile and theirs effects are interconnected; (ii) water and soil characteristics vary greatly spatially; (iii) this approach allows the evaluation of both on-and off-site impacts and (iv) it is the best way to discriminate systems and support a reliable eco-design.Conclusions This paper highlights the importance of including salinisation impacts in LCA. Much research effort is still required to include salinisation impacts in a global, consistent and operational manner in LCA, and this paper provides the basis for future methodological developments.

The local hydroclimates get impacts from the large-scale atmospheric variables via atmospheric circulation. The developing of their relationships could enhance the understanding of hydroclimate variability. This study focuses on the Upper Chao Phraya River Basin in Thailand in which rainfall is influenced by the Indian Ocean and tropical Pacific Ocean atmospheric circulation. The Southwest monsoon from the Indian Ocean to Thailand is strengthened by the temperature gradient between land and ocean. Thus, the anomalous sea surface temperature (SST) is systematically correlated with the monthly rainfall and identified as the best predictor based on the significant relationships revealed by cross-correlation analysis. It is found that rainfall, especially during the monsoon season in the different zones of study basin, corresponds to the different SST indices. This suggests that the region over the ocean which develops the temperature gradient plays a role in strengthening the monsoon. The enhanced gradient with the SST over the South China Sea is related to rainfall in High Rainfall Zone (HRZ); however, the anomalous SST over the Indian Ocean and the equatorial Pacific Ocean are associated with rainfall in Normal and Low Rainfall Zone (NRZ and LRZ) in the study area. Moreover, the identified predictors are related to the rainfall with lead periods of 1–4 months for the pre-monsoon rainfall and 6–12 months for the monsoon and dry season rainfall. The study results are very useful in developing rainfall forecasting models and consequently in the management of water resources and extreme events.

A cascading multiple-use water system in the Konto River Basin, Indonesia, has been examined to assess the cumulative benefits of water uses where water is sequentially used in three hydropower plants and then in an irrigation system from an upstream reservoir. Using a hydro-economic modeling, optimal water allocation among the users was explored, considering appropriate environmental flows (EFs) as well. Tradeoffs between benefit maximization and environmental protection at the basin scale benefits due to different provisions of EFs were examined. Estimates indicate that the current operation mode, not considering EF in the mainstream of the Konto, generates an annual maximum benefit of US$ 16.281 million from the perspective of direct water uses; however, ensuring environmental water requirements in the current operation mode will cost about US$ 1.067 million annually. Such analyses will help in running the Konto system in a sustainable pattern and in other places with similar conditions.

L'irrigation en Chine du Nord souffre d'un declin des ressources en eaux souterraines et de problemes institutionnels. En reponse, les autorites ont developpe des mesures qui incluent l'allocation et la tarification differenciees de la ressource, des droits d'acces individuels et collectifs, une tarification par paliers, l'acces a l'eau par prepaiement, et un suivi en temps reel des consommations et de la ressource. Ce papier analyse ce modele alternatif de gestion et ses implications sur les systemes et les exploitations, mobilisant l'analyse institutionnelle, economique et technique du cas sous etude dans le comte de Qinqxu, dans le nord de la Chine. Les resultats montrent que le systeme de prepaiement aide a resoudre les problemes de recouvrement, de resquille (free-riding), d'agence et de surexploitation de la ressource. Tous les usages sont prepayes et donc collectes. Cependant, alors que la plupart des couts d'operation et de maintenance sont couverts, les couts de personnel sont couverts dans un seul cas seulement, en raison du bas prix de l'eau. Les problemes d'agence sont aussi traites grâce au suivi continu des usages et de la ressource. La valeur d'usage de l'eau est elevee comparee a son prix, en raison de rendements en mais eleves et a un usage raisonnable de l'irrigation d'appoint. Une augmentation du prix de l'eau est donc potentiellement envisageable, si necessaire. Ce papier montre que ce nouveau systeme de gestion a l'echelle du comte reflete finalement les reformes de la finance rurale en Chine, et le realignement des institutions locales de gestion de l'eau avec les niveaux administratifs existants. Il discute finalement les points positifs, les questions en suspens, et les limites d'un tel systeme sur le long terme. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. (Resume d'auteur)

L'application d'eau d'irrigation et d'engrais azotes (N) en exces par rapport a la demande des cultures reduit la profitabilite et a de multiples impacts negatifs sur l'environnement. La dynamique de l'azote dans les agrosystemes est extremement complexe, et des modeles mecanistes de culture sont souvent necessaires pour quantifier l'impact de pratiques de gestion ameliorees sur la reduction des pertes en azote. Cette etude utilise la methodologie de l'Analyse du Cycle de Vie (ACV) combinee a la modelisation mecaniste pour quantifier les benefices environnementaux d'une gestion amelioree de l'eau et des fertilisants azotes par des producteurs de canne a sucre, dans une etude de cas a Pongola, Afrique du Sud. Nous avons compare un scenario de base representatif des pratiques courantes et intuitives des producteurs en termes d'irrigation, a deux scenarios supplementaires representant des pratiques de gestion plus rationnelles de l'eau, et de l'eau et des engrais, respectivement. Les resultats montrent qu'une meilleure gestion de l'eau et de l'azote peut generer une reduction de 20% de la consommation en energie non-renouvelable, avec des rendements maintenus voire ameliores. Les emissions totales de GES peuvent potentiellement etre reduites de 25%. La reduction des applications d'engrais, rendue possible par le moindre lessivage de l'azote sous irrigation raisonnee, resulte en de fortes reductions de ces deux categories d'impacts. La consommation totale en eau est similaire entre scenario de base et scenarios de meilleure gestion de l'eau; cependant l'utilisation de l'eau de pluie est plus efficiente avec les irrigations raisonnees, reduisant ainsi les besoins d'extraction de la ressource. Par la prise en compte simultanee d'impacts environnementaux multiples, la combinaison de l'ACV et de la modelisation mecaniste de culture montre un potentiel pour identifier les pratiques ameliorees et pour developper un accompagnement en eco-conception de systemes. (Resume d'auteur)

Throughout Southeast Asia, government agencies are promoting good agricultural practices (GAP) standards for improving food safety, avoiding potential nontariff barriers to exports, and ultimately securing farmers' health and revenues. This paper presents an analysis of the adoption of a public standard in Thailand, the Rice Q-GAP where Q stands for “quality.” In the Central Plains of Thailand, a major rice production area, rice is produced by relatively small farms but with very intensive use of chemical inputs, making it challenging to promote production standards. Our study investigates the factors influencing the adoption of standards and the differences in cultivation practices between adopters and nonadopters. Governmental agencies have organized training activities throughout the country about rice production and Q-GAP standards. That training is likely to have an important influence on Q-GAP adoption. We investigate the potential selection bias in training delivery, using a recursive bivariate probit model whereby training is successively an explanatory variable for the Q-GAP adoption and a variable to be explained. Our model suggests that lack of labor availability is an essential factor related to nonadoption. Belonging to farmers associations and groups is also shown to be an important factor of adoption. Unexpectedly, training has a slight negative effect on Q-GAP adoption. A possible explanation is that when concrete information about the program is delivered, some farmers make an informed decision not to participate; this reinforces the idea that the main factors that could hamper further adoption are not related to information but to real farm constraints and farmers' rational behavior. The paper also found some small but significant differences in terms of farmers' practices related to adoption. The most convincing change is the reduction in the number of pesticide applications by adopters. (Resume d'auteur)

Northeastern Thailand is an essential production area for high-quality fragrant rice for both domestic use and export. While rain-fed conditions still largely prevail, plans to extend irrigation are being drafted. This paper compares the advantages of rice production under irrigation and rain-fed conditions in both environmental and economic terms. Indicators of techno-economic performances were combined with environmental impact indicators based upon life cycle assessment, energy and water use analyses. Data were collected in 2010 at the farm level in 43 households of Lam Sieo Yai Basin in North-Eastern Thailand, according to 3 cropping systems, namely wet-season rain-fed (Rw), wet-season irrigated (Iw) and dry-season irrigated (Id) systems. Eco-efficiency indicators were calculated as per impact category. Wide-ranging techno-economic performances and environmental impacts were observed, while cropping practices were found to be homogeneous. Differentiation of systems originated mostly from differences in yield, which were mostly impacted by water supply. Yields vary from 2625 kg/ha in the Iw system to 2375 in the Rw system and 2188 in the Id system. The results highlight the low performances of Id systems in both techno-economic and environmental terms. Id systems require mostly blue water, while the two other systems rely primarily on green water. Id systems also require more energy and labour, due to increased water management needs. Overall, the productivity of most production factors was found to be higher in Rw and Iw systems; this results in return on investment being slightly higher in the Iw system compared to the Rw system (0.12 kg/THB and 0.11 kg/THB, respectively) and is lowest in the Id system (0.1 kg/THB) where THB is Thai baht, currency of Thailand. In Id systems, farmers need to produce twice as much rice (0.41 kg) to obtain 1 THB of net income, compared to 0.23 and 0.25 kg for Iw and Rw respectively. Emissions proved relatively similar across all 3 systems, with the exception of CH 4 , which was markedly lower in Rw systems due to specific water and organic residue management. Id systems systematically emitted more nitrates, phosphates and pesticides into water sources. Rw systems showed the lowest environmental impacts per ha and per kg of paddy rice produced. GWP 100 was higher in Id systems (5.55 kg CO 2 -eq per kg of rice) compared to Iw (4.87) and Rw (2.97). Finally, Rw systems were found to be more eco-efficient in most impact categories, including Global Warming Potential. The total value product per kg of CO 2 -eq emitted is 4, 2.5 and 2.2 THB in Rw, Iw, and Id systems respectively. This paper further discusses the results in view of contrasting perspectives, including societal objectives, farmer income and environmental integrity, and possible irrigation development in Northeastern Thailand.

In Southeast Asia, inland fish resources are crucial for small-scale fishing households. Their decline, due to overfishing and a set of socio-ecological factors, jeopardises aquatic ecosystems and the livelihoods of fishing communities. Singkarak Lake (West Sumatra) exemplifies this sustainability challenge. The paper proposes a multi-disciplinary analysis of the situation. First, it identifies and documents the primary livelihood systems and the strategic adaptations involved in fishing communities. Based upon a sample of 200 households and the implementation of multivariate analyses, a typology is developed. Three household types are identified. Type I comprises better-off farming fishers that have high fishing capitals and income but the lowest returns on fishing and land assets. Type II includes poor fishing farmers with higher farming income; they show the highest return on land assets. Type III is composed of poorer, younger fishers with the highest return on fishing assets and fishing costs. They have little land, low farming income, and diversified livelihood sources. Second, the technical efficiency (TE) of fishing households is studied using a data envelopment analysis. The results show that the average TE is low, but marked differences exist between the types. Type I households have the lowest TE in fishing, confirming an extensification and overcapitalisation strategy. Type II households show a high technical fishing efficiency. They have developed on-farm diversification with a combined, balanced livelihood system. Type III households are the most efficient fishers. They developed an intensification strategy together with off-farm diversification. Different livelihood strategies and economic portfolio have been developed as the response to the limited resources, uncertainty, fluctuating environment and other source of vulnerability. The fishers built up their livelihood based on their assets' ownership, access to other resource out of fishing and their socio-economic status. In this context, understanding livelihood diversity among small-scale fishers, different socio-economic, their efficiency, constraints and opportunities emerge as important factor in policy formulation to enhance support to small-scale fishing communities and improved management of both the resources and local development. Finally, the paper suggests a focus on people and community-related solutions and proposes a threefold approach of resource conservation, livelihood improvements and restructured governance.

The functional relationship between benefit level and resource availability, which is demonstrated in a marginal benefit (MB) function but not in a total benefit (TB) function, is mostly absent in environmental valuation studies. This paper aims to establish the total and MB functions for instream water direct uses. Incomes of the beneficiaries considered as the water-use benefit and its seasonal variation within a year obtained from a semi-structured primary survey are used to establish a quadratic TB and subsequently a linear MB function. The Teesta River from Bangladesh is taken as a case study where capture fishery and small-scale navigation are the instream water direct uses on which many riparian poor rely for their livelihood. Despite several challenges including data paucity, the study carries importance to persuade instream flow provision and safeguard the livelihoods of the poor riparian communities in a developing country perspective.

This article describes a hydrologic-economic optimization model for allocating available river flow between competing off- and in-stream demands, based on the marginal benefits (MBs) of sectoral water uses in a segment of the Teesta River in Bangladesh. Irrigation, capture fishery and navigation are the main direct water uses considered. The value of irrigation water was estimated using the residual imputation method. Losses in yield caused by lowered irrigation supply, resulting from reduced river flow, formed the basis for establishing the total and MB functions for off-stream river water use (irrigation). Total and MB functions for in-stream water use (capture fishery, navigation) were developed using field survey data of beneficiaries' income as a function of river flow. Analysis was enhanced by applying AQUARIUS, which allocates water between users to maximize consumer surplus based on MB functions. Model results show that in-stream uses could not compete with off-stream uses in the case of the Teesta, as substantial benefit was obtained from irrigation. Environmental flow to safeguard river health and in-stream use was considered to be a constraint in the optimization, which results in a sizeable reduction in irrigation benefit with a small increase in in-stream benefit. The necessary trade-offs between economic efficiency and environmental protection are depicted, providing insight into a justifiable water allocation strategy for the Teesta. (Resume d'auteur)

L'établissement de relations statistiques entre variables pluviométriques locales et variables atmosphériques de grande échelle permet une meilleure compréhension de la variabilité hydroclimatique. Les précipitations dans le bassin d'étude (le bassin supérieur de la Rivière Chao Phraya, Thaïlande) sont influencées par la circulation atmosphérique dans l'Océan Indien et dans l'Océan Pacifique tropical. Par l'analyse de corrélations et régressions multiples en validation croisée, les prédicteurs de variables atmosphériques de grande échelle, à savoir température, pression et vent, sont identifiés sur des régions cibles, et montrent une bonne capacité de prévision à long terme. Le modèle modifié des k-plus proches voisins (k-nn), développé par les prédicteurs identifiés pour prévoir les pluies, et évalué par fonction de probabilité, montre une prévisibilité à long terme (7-9 mois) des pluies de mousson. La moindre performance dans la prévision des pluies de saison sèche est prouvée pour la prévision à court et à long terme. Le modèle développé présente également une meilleure performance pour les pluies de pré-mousson en année sèche, par rapport à une année humide, et inversement pour les pluies de mousson.

This study evaluates the potential impact of increased biofuel production on the hydrology of a small watershed, Khlong Phlo, in the eastern part of Thailand. The water footprint of biofuel energy was estimated for three crops in order to identify the most water-efficient crop. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was used to evaluate the impact of land use change (LUC) caused by the expansion of biofuel crops on the components of water balance and water quality in the studied watershed. Several LUC scenarios consisting of oil palm (biodiesel), cassava and sugarcane (bio-ethanol) expansion were evaluated. The water footprint results indicated that cassava is more water-efficient than the other two crops considered. Simulation results revealed that although oil palm expansion would have negligible alteration in evapotranspiration (0.5 to 1.6%) and water yield (−0.5 to −1.1%), there would be an increased nitrate loading (1.3 to 51.7%) to the surface water. On the contrary, expansion of cassava and sugarcane would decrease evapotranspiration (0.8 to 11.8%) and increase water yield (1.6 to 18.0%), which would lead to increased sediment (10.9 to 91.5%), nitrate (1.9 to 44.5%) and total phosphorus (15.0 to 165.0%) loading to surface water. Based on the results, it can be concluded that land use change for biodiesel production would affect water quality, while both the water balance components and water quality would be affected by the expansion of bio-ethanol crops. Overall, the study indicates that biofuel production would have a negative impact on the water quality of the studied watershed. Further research at large scale (e.g. basin level) and on the economic aspect is recommended, in order to contribute to developing suitable land use and energy policies.

L'estimation de la valeur d'usage de l'eau d'une riviere en fonction du debit utilise reste rare dans la litterature, alors que ce type d'evaluation peut revetir une grande importance pour informer l'allocation de la ressource entre usages au-fil-de-l'eau (in-stream) et hors-riviere (off-stream). Cet article developpe et presente les benefices totaux et marginaux d'un usage hors-riviere, l'irrigation, comme fonctions du debit de la riviere Teesta au Bangladesh. Une approche de bilan de l'eau au champ, et la modelisation avec CROPWAT sont utilises pour calculer respectivement les besoins en eau du riz, et d'autres cultures. La methode d'imputation residuelle est employee pour estimer la valeur economique de l'eau d'irrigation. Pour les cas de faible debit dans la riviere, divers scenarios sont testes, bases sur (i) l'usage conjoint de ressources souterraines, (ii) la reduction des surfaces irriguees, et (iii) des pertes de rendements lies au stress hydrique ; ils permettent de developper les fonctions de benefices totaux et marginaux pour les usages en irrigation dans la zone d'etude. Les benefices marginaux estimes selon le debit de la riviere forment des fonctions lineaires, de pente nulle dans les deux premiers scenarios, et de pente negative dans le troisieme. Les resultats obtenus peuvent assister les gestionnaires de bassin dans les decisions d'allocation equitable et efficiente de la ressource entre usages. (Resume d'auteur)

Insight into the value of water is essential to support policy decision making about investments in the water sector, efficient allocation of water and water pricing. However, information on irrigation water values at small-scale schemes is scarce and in general little attention is paid to the determinants of these values. In this study values are calculated for small-scale irrigation schemes in the North West Province of South Africa, using the residual imputation method. An average water value of US$0.188/m3, in line with expectations for vegetable crops, was found. Furthermore, the crop choice and the irrigation scheme design and institutional setting were shown to significantly influence the water value, whilst individual characteristics of farmers proved to be less important.

As one of the most comprehensive environmental assessment methodologies, life cycle assessment enables evaluation of the environmental impacts of anthropogenic activities along a supply chain. Its implementation raises many scientific questions. In the case of tropical cropping systems, researchers are working to understand and model environmental emissions based on the diversity of environments and systems. They are also focusing on the relationship between emissions and impacts. Cropping system life cycle assessments show that the impact on climate change varies by crop, environment and type of practice. Life cycle assessment can help guide production methods so as to reduce their environmental impacts. But the choices are not always clearcut.

This study aims to evaluate the performance of groundwater-based tube well irrigation systems of Sarlahi District in Nepal considering a water–energy–food nexus approach. The deep tube well (DTW) irrigation systems showed better performance over shallow tube well (STW) irrigation systems in terms of water supply and agricultural output per unit of irrigated area. On the other hand, the STW-based irrigation systems showed better performance in terms of energy use, management operation and maintenance (MOM) cost and benefit–cost ratio compared to DTW-irrigated systems. The productivity of irrigation water and energy input to major crops showed the best performance for maize followed by rice and wheat. The simulated yields of cereal crops through the AquaCrop model showed significant scope for enhancing crop yields and associated benefits through judicious use of water and fertilizer.

The environmental impact of imported fresh agricultural products, such as off-season vegetables transported over long distances, is under growing scrutiny. We hypothesised that the environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) ranking between local and imported vegetables might change depending on the impact category considered. We focused on the case study of off-season tomatoes produced in Morocco under unheated greenhouses in a water-scarce area, which covers 68% of the fresh tomatoes imported to France. First, we performed a cradle-to-market gate LCA of the Moroccan production using primary data based on a field survey. Second, we applied the same Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) method to published cradle-to-farm-gate results of the French tomato cropping system, which also provides off-season tomatoes to the French market and which is characterised by heated greenhouses with a high level of inputs. In addition to typical environmental impact categories, the freshwater use impact was included. The ranking between imported and local tomatoes was different depending on the impact category. Freshwater use had greater impacts under the Moroccan arid climate: 28.0 L H 2 O eq kg −1 of Moroccan tomato and 7.5 L H 2 O eq kg −1 of French tomato. Conversely, the higher level of artificialisation of the French production resulted in greater impacts on total energy consumption, global warming, and eutrophication, even including transport to France for the Moroccan tomato. This reveals a trade-off between freshwater use impacts and the usual/other impacts, mostly energy-related. At the farm gate, we found that the Moroccan tomato water consumption highly contributed to the total damages to Human Health (14%), and Ecosystems (20%) (contribution to Resources depletion was only 2%). Therefore, ignoring the impacts of freshwater use in LCA also underestimates the damages. Moreover, we showed that the assessment of freshwater use impacts and damages still has shortcomings, leading to an underestimation of the impact for the Moroccan tomato case. These results emphasised the importance of considering all of the impact categories when performing an agricultural LCA and the need for a more comprehensive method for assessing the impacts of freshwater use. In particular, the use of an operational tool for estimating water and solute fluxes at the field level is recommended to feed freshwater impact assessment methods.

This paper proposes and analyses a model of relationships between smallholder sugarcane growers and the millers in the Swaziland sugar industry supply chain. In particular, it identifies the behavioural factors that contribute to the level of satisfaction that sugarcane grouwers perceive in their relationship with the millers. Using, recursive models and multiple regression analysis, the results indicate that higher levels of trust lead to higher levels of cooperation that, in turn, lead to higher levels of commitment by the smallholder growers to the business relationship. Cooperation is also an antecedent of the benefits and of the satisfaction that these growers gained from the relationship. These results agree with a priori theory that trust, cooperation strategic benefits, commitment and absence of opportunistic behaviour are essential elements for a successful relational exchange. The findings of this study imply that both cane growers and millers, need to focus on initiating, signalling and disclosing their behaviours in an effort to improve their relationship with each other. A relationship founded on trust and mutual respect is more likely to succeed than a relationship of convenience suported by legal contingencies. Therefore, relationships characterised by trust and physical and psychological commitment as well as cooperation between exchange parties is more important for mutual benefit and good quality relationship.

This paper describes the origin and history of smallholding irrigation schemes (SIS) in previously disadvantaged rural areas of South Africa. It then analyses the implications of the 1998 National Water Act on those schemes. An analysis of water rights is presented, along with a brief case study on a water rights transfer. A number of contradictions, uncertainties and possible threats are highlighted, which may hinder further development in SIS. Most difficulties originate from the Act's lacks of clarity regarding water rights and from the objectives and socio-economic prospects of' the schemes.

The proliferation of food, feed and biofuels demands promises to increase pressure on water competition and stress, particularly for Thailand, which has a large agricultural base. This study assesses the water footprint of ten staple crops grown in different regions across the country and evaluates the impact of crop water use in different regions/watersheds by the water stress index and the indication of water deprivation potential. The ten crops include major rice, second rice, maize, soybean, mungbean, peanut, cassava, sugarcane, pineapple and oil palm. The water stress index of the 25 major watersheds in Thailand has been evaluated. The results show that there are high variations of crop water requirements grown in different regions due to many factors. However, based on the current cropping systems, the Northeastern region has the highest water requirement for both green water (or rain water) and blue water (or irrigation water). Rice (paddy) farming requires the highest amount of irrigation water, i.e., around 10,489 million m3/year followed by the maize, sugarcane, oil palm and cassava. Major rice cultivation induces the highest water deprivation, i.e., 1862 million m3H2Oeq/year; followed by sugarcane, second rice and cassava. The watersheds that have high risk on water competition due to increase in production of the ten crops considered are the Mun, Chi and Chao Phraya watersheds. The main contribution is from the second rice cultivation. Recommendations have been proposed for sustainable crops production in the future.

Des ressources collectives en eau d'irrigation tres limitees amenent les acteurs a negocier l'etablissement de regles de partage et de gestion communes. Une etude a ete conduite a la Reunion, sur un projet de retenue collinaire collective, dont l'objectif etait d'aider les acteurs a mieux definir les relations offre- demande en eau et les risques de penurie, puis a tester differentes regles de partage. Cet article presente la methodologie employee, associant etroitement (i) analyse des pratiques individuelles des irrigants, (ii) elaboration d'outils de modelisation et de simulation des consommations individuelles, et de l'offre en eau selon differents scenarios climatiques, et (iii) discussion des resultats avec le groupe d'acteurs locaux. (Resume d'auteur)

The study assesses the implications of the bioethanol policy mandate in Thailand of producing 9 M litre ethanol per day by 2021 on water use and water deprivation. The results reveal that water footprint (WF) of bioethanol varies between 1396 and 3105 L water/L ethanol. Cassava ethanol has the highest WF followed by molasses and sugarcane ethanol, respectively. However, in terms of fresh water (especially irrigation water) consumption, molasses ethanol is highest with 699-1220 L/L ethanol. To satisfy the government plan of bioethanol production in 2021, around 1625 million m3 of irrigation water/year will be additionally required, accounting for about 3% of the current active water storage of Thailand. Two important watersheds in the northeastern region of Thailand are found to be potentially facing serious water stress if water resources are not properly managed. Measures to reduce water footprint of bioethanol are recommended. (Resume d'auteur)

Cotton cropping in Pakistan uses substantial quantities of resources and adversely affects the environment with pollutants from the inputs, particularly pesticides. A question remains regarding to what extent the reduction of such environmental impact is possible without compromising the farmers’ income. This paper investigates the environmental, technical, and economic performances of selected irrigated cotton-cropping systems in Punjab to quantify the sustainability of cotton farming and reveal options for improvement. Using mostly primary data, our study quantifies the technical, cost, and environmental efficiencies of different farm sizes. A set of indicators has been computed to reflect these three domains of efficiency using the data envelopment analysis technique. The results indicate that farmers are broadly environmentally inefficient; which primarily results from poor technical inefficiency. Based on an improved input mix, the average potential environmental impact reduction for small, medium, and large farms is 9, 13, and 11 %, respectively, without compromising the economic return. Moreover, the differences in technical, cost, and environmental efficiencies between small and medium and small and large farm sizes were statistically significant. The second-stage regression analysis identifies that the entire farm size significantly affects the efficiencies, whereas exposure to extension and training has positive effects, and the sowing methods significantly affect the technical and environmental efficiencies. Paradoxically, the formal education level is determined to affect the efficiencies negatively. This paper discusses policy interventions that can improve the technical efficiency to ultimately increase the environmental efficiency and reduce the farmers’ operating costs.

Technical and socio-economic characteristics are known to determine different types of fishers and their livelihood strategies. Faced with declining fish and water resources, small-scale fisheries engage into transformations in livelihood and fishing practices. The paper is an attempt to understand these changes and their socio-economic patterns, in the case of Singkarak Lake in West Sumatra, Indonesia. Based upon the hypothesis that riparian communities have diverse, complex yet structured and dynamic livelihood systems, the paper's main objective is to study, document and model the actual diversity in livelihood, practices and performance of inland small-scale fisheries along the Singkarak Lake, to picture how households are adapted to the situation, and propose an updated, workable model (typology) of those for policy. Principal component analysis and cluster analysis were used to develop a typology of fishing households. The results show that smallscale fishers can be classified into different types characterized by distinct livelihood strategies. Three household types are identified, namely ''farming fishers'' households (type I, 30 %), ''fishing farmers'' households (type II, 30 %), and ''mainly fishers'' households (type III, 40 %). There are significant differences among these groups in the number of boats owned, annual fishing income, agriculture income and farming experience. Type I consists of farming fishers, well equipped, with high fishing costs and income, yet with the lowest return on fishing assets. They are also landowners with farming income, showing the lowest return on land capital. Type II includes poor fishing farmers, landowners with higher farming income; they show the highest return on land asset. They have less fishing equipment, costs and income. Type III (mainly fishers) consists of poorer, younger fishers, with highest return on fishing assets and on fishing costs. They have little land, low farming income, and diversified livelihood sources. The nature of their livelihood strategies is discussed for each identified group. This helps to understand the complexity and diversity of small-scale fishers, particularly in the study area which is still poorly known. This paper concludes with policy implication and possible management initiatives for environmentally prudent policy aiming at improvement of fishers' livelihood.

The study develops an integrated model for allocation of limited available water among competing user sectors. The model comprises a reservoir operation model (ROM) and a water allocation model (WAM). ROM determines the available water, which is used as an input to WAM. Two single and one multi-objective functions are included in the water allocation model. The first single objective function (OF1) maximises the satisfaction level in meeting the sectoral water demands and the second single objective function (OF2) maximises the net economic benefits from different use sectors. The multi-objective function (OF12) is a combination of the first two objectives. An equity concept with the fuzzy (minimum operator) approach is introduced to distribute stress equally among the sectors. The developed model is applied to the Chao Phraya basin in Thailand. The results indicate that the WAM can improve satisfaction levels and net economic returns compared to the current water allocation practices.

On the western slopes of Reunion Island, the trends in cropping systems for perfume pelargonium are causing serious erosion problems. This paper reviews the causes of these trends, presents the consequences of this deterioration, and assesses the agro-ecological solutions by means of cover plants and hedging with agroforest species. Firstly, the short term effects of cover plants (Lotus uliginosus, Pennisetum clandestinum) associated with the pelargonium crop are considered. Using rainfall simulation, it is shown that such associations have immediate effects in controlling erosion, although runoff is not significantly reduced. The more long-term effects of this type of cover are then compared with pelargonium monoculture on bare soils, and with pelargonium in rotation with stable crops. The effect of hedging along plot boundaries is also observed. Descriptions of soil profiles highlight the advantages of plant cover, in improving soil structure and biological activity. Near hedges, the same tendencies are even more marked. Soil hydraulic conductivity, measured in the various situations, confirms the complementarity of cover plants and hedges in association. The plant cover reduces erosion, with only a slight increase in water infiltration. At the same time, soil under hedges gives rise to very high water conductivity which should enable a large proportion of runoff water to be absorbed.

Climate change is the main global challenge of this century; it is therefore imperative to identify its effects on agriculture in developing countries. This research makes spatial assessment of climate change effect on major plantation crops in Sri Lanka, with emphasis on crop suitability of tea, rubber, and coconut. Geo-referenced maps of spatial and temporal changes in crop suitability and production potentials are generated and compared. Data pertaining to six agro-ecological zones under the study area are analyzed for a period of 1980–2007. Crop suitability maps are generated amalgamating yield maps and climatic factors maps using AHP in multi-criteria analysis under two time frames of 1980–1992 and 1993–2007. Percent change in crop suitability and crop yield classes is calculated based on five crop suitability and five crop yield classes during two time frames. Dynamics of climatic parameters and crop yield are recognized using geo-referenced maps. The suitability maps of the two time frames are compared to identify the changes with each crop in conjunction with changes in the prevailing climate and yield. Geographic shift of suitability, yield, and climate classes are examined. Net gain or loss in crop production is quantified. Long-term annual rainfall significantly decreased in mid-country wet zone, whereas the mean temperature of the study area increased by 1.4°C. Results clearly showed that the climate and yield can be meaningfully related to the crop suitability and management.

This paper assesses the role of livelihood capital in shaping farming strategies and determining farming outcomes for smallholder rubber producers in southern Thailand. The authors find a positive relationship between the access level of livelihood capital and levels of diversification. The diversification and integration of rubber-based farming systems result in higher production and farm income. Specialization in rubber monoculture derives from an overall low endowment of livelihood capital, which generates poor farming outcomes. The paper assesses the relative efficiency of farms' ability to maximize income and production using data envelopment analysis. Diversified, integrated rubber farming systems confirm higher techno-economic efficiency scores, thus supporting the need for further policy and support measures. Diversification and crop integration should be supported as a pathway for sustaining farmers' livelihood.

Le calcul de la valeur economique, relative a l'usage de l'eau, est une tâche essentielle pour les operations de design des incitations economiques et des arrangements institutionnels qui peuvent assurer la durabilite, l'efficience et l'equite de l'allocation de l'eau. Les informations concernant les valeurs de l'eau d'irrigation a l'echelle de petites exploitations irriguees sont parfois limitees. En plus, peu d'attention est accordee a leurs determinants de variabilite. En Afrique de Sud, l'appel a une allocation plus efficace de l'eau qui est due a sa rarete accrue, a l'application planifiee des tarifs d'irrigation, et au role de l'irrigation dans le developpement rural, accroit l'importance d'informations concernant la valeur de l'eau utilisee en agriculture et sa variabilite. Dans ce contexte, notre etude s'interesse a la determination de ces valeurs a l'echelle de petites exploitations irriguees en Afrique de Sud en utilisant la methode d'imputation residuelle. Les resultats montrent que, sans subventionnement de l'eau d'irrigation et des autres inputs, les petits exploitants auront des difficultes a generer un profit de certaines cultures. Ceci genere un doute concernant la capacite des agriculteurs a payer l'eau d'irrigation une fois des charges seront introduites. La valeur moyenne de l'eau d'irrigation estimee par notre etude est de US$0.188 m-3. Les valeurs de l'eau enregistrent, cependant, une large variabilite. Un modele lineaire generalise montre que cette variabilite est principalement due aux choix des cultures, au design du systeme d'irrigation, et au cadre institutionnel applique dans la zone irriguee. (Resume d'auteur)

Cette etude aborde l'evaluation de la durabilite de deux systemes irrigues, Kamphaengsaen (KPP) et Phophraya (PPP) dans le Bassin de Tha Chin en Thailande. L'evaluation s'appuie d'abord sur la recherche d'indicateurs de durabilite, a partir d'une analyse en composantes principales (ACP). Les indicateurs majeurs affectant la durabilite sont ainsi identifies. Ils sont ponderes par les valeurs propres obtenues dans l'ACP puis mobilises dans le calcul d'un index de durabilite de l'irrigation (IDI) qui classifie en 5 niveaux la durabilite des secteurs hydrauliques. Les resultats obtenus a KPP indiquent les indicateurs majeurs suivants: le revenu net par exploitation, la conscience (par les irrigants) des problemes d'usage de l'eau d'irrigation, l'adequation entre calendrier d'apports d'eau et operations culturales, et l'efficience d'application au champ. A KPP, six zones ont un IDI tres faible; cinq en ont un faible; 11 zones ont un IDI moyen; quatre zones ont un IDI eleve, et une, un tres eleve. Quatre indicateurs majeurs sont identifies a PPP: la perception (par les irrigants) de la qualite de l'eau de drainage, leur satisfaction sur l'adequation entre distribution de l'eau et besoins, l'efficience d'application au champ, et le revenu net par exploitation. A PPP, une zone a un IDI tres faible; trois zones en ont un faible; cinq zones ont un IDI moyen; une zone en a un eleve, et une autre un tres eleve. Les index IDI ainsi developpes peuvent aider les gestionnaires et les acteurs politiques de l'irrigation a mieux comprendre les indicateurs les plus importants pour la durabilite des systemes irrigues, leurs roles, et les implications en terme de gestion durable de ces systemes. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. (Resume d'auteur)

The study develops a model for optimal bulk allocations of limited available water based on an economic criterion to competing use sectors such as agriculture, domestic, industry and hydropower. The model comprises a reservoir operation module (ROM) and a water allocation module (WAM). ROM determines the amount of water available for allocation, which is used as an input to WAM with an objective function to maximize the net economic benefits of bulk allocations to different use sectors. The total net benefit functions for agriculture and hydropower sectors and the marginal net benefit from domestic and industrial sectors are established and are categorically taken as fixed in the present study. The developed model is applied to the Chao Phraya basin in Thailand. The case study results indicate that the WAM can improve net economic returns compared to the current water allocation practices.)

International audience; In the current global context, fossil energy consumption is a concerning features of crop production systems. Increasing knowledge about energy use in agriculture is crucial towards reduction of the unsustainable use of limited and costly energy resources and the related greenhouse gas emissions. As part of an effort to evaluate the sustainability of direct seeding into mulch (DSM) in the Mediterranean climate, the present study assessed the impacts of DSM on the energy balance as compared with conventional tillage (CT) system. The crop rotation included maize, sorghum, and durum wheat. In this study farm gate input-output approach was employed to compute energy balance. Results showed that DSM required significantly lower energy input for all three crops, while for corn and sorghum the differences in energy output, energy gain, output/input ratio and energy intensity were not significantly different. It means that DSM for corn and sorghum could significantly reduce energy input (up to 18%) while maintaining output. Furthermore DSM decreased 42-50% the consumption of diesel and lubricants compared with CT. These results suggest that, in the terms of energy balance, DSM is an interesting alternative to CT system in the SE of France.

Climate change-related drought in recent years has emerged as a source of household-level vulnerability in rainfed hill agriculture of Nepal. The farmers cannot grow crops when there is no rainfall during the cropping season. They have weak adaptive capacity against drought due to the poor asset base and low access to services and facilities. The government also has limited resources to support these farmers, which calls for prioritising both the adaptation indicators and beneficiary farmers. However, current literature on vulnerability is inadequate, and there is still uncertainty in measurement at household level. Amidst this uncertainty, this research uses an objective method of vulnerability analysis, applying multivariate independence techniques. Information collected by participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and household survey of 158 farms from August 2008 to January 2009 was used. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to prioritise the indicators, and cluster analysis (CA) was used to classify farmers into different vulnerability groups. The indicators, arranged from highest to lowest priority, were access to land, access to irrigation, employment diversification, access to markets, crop-livestock integration, access to social networks and access to agricultural training. Similarly, 63%, 18% and 19% of all farms were classified as highly vulnerable, moderately vulnerable and less vulnerable, respectively. The article then discusses constraints and relevant areas of adaptation interventions for each vulnerability group of farmers.

Comme tout domaine de l’industrie actuelle, l’outillage ne cesse d’evoluer, et celui en rapport avec la fonderie n’est pas exclu. Les outilleurs, qui se doivent de posseder de nombreuses competences techniques, en savent quelque chose, ils sont tenus d’allier technologie et prix de revient. Cet article traite de la fabrication des outillages de fonderie jusqu’a leur finalite. Toutes les etapes de la fabrication sont parcourues, de la programmation numerique de l’usinage, a sa realisation, jusqu’a l’ajustage et le montage de l’outil. Pour terminer, les perspectives de developpement et d’avenir de cette filiere sont evoquees, avec notamment la place recente du prototypage rapide dans le sable ou l’obtention d’outillages a partir de carbone pulverulent.

En fonderie, les outillages sont les moyens materiels qui vont permettre de realiser l'action de mise en forme du metal liquide. Ces procedes sont conduits soit avec des moules permanents, donc reutilisables (fonderie sous pression, coquilles), soit avec des elements constituant des moules non permanents (plaques modeles, boites a noyaux, gabarits et modeles). Cet article expose tout d’abord la constitution, puis la demarche de conception des outillages de fonderie. Cette derniere debute avec l’analyse de moulage de la piece et notamment les criteres a retenir. Les particularites associees a la fonderie sous pression, dont le procede squeeze-casting, et a la fonderie gravite sont ensuite detaillees.

Considering water as an economic good entails, among other requisites, properly assessing the cost incurred by supplying and managing the resource, and the required infrastructure thereof. Regarding irrigation, the International Commission for Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) set up a method for assessing the full financial costs, in the form of guidelines. This paper investigates the applicability of these guidelines in smallholder irrigation conditions in developing countries. The paper first presents the specific conditions and features of such a sector, with emphasis on South African examples. Several specific issues are identified and discussed, such as the lack of records on infrastructure and initial costs, the multiple purpose and actual uses of certain equipment and infrastructure, the shift in purpose of others over time, the inclusion of certain small, yet indispensable equipment in the calculation, the partial refurbishment works on particular assets, and the lack of a standard basis for calculation under tropical, developing conditions (e.g. on service life, maintenance requirements). Secondly, after a brief review of current frameworks, concepts and terminology, the paper attempts to apply the existing guidelines developed by ICID for evaluating financial costs of irrigation services on a case study in South Africa. The results suggest that the application of the guidelines is feasible, provided that some adapted data and available information replace the original set, especially for capital costs. This applies to the discount rate, calculation of the current value, and estimation of the service life of infrastructure and equipment. In particular, several scenarios have been tested in order to identify a surrogate to the discount rate. The average yield on Negotiable Certificates of Deposit (NCD) is suggested as a surrogate for treasury bills and hence as a substitute for the discount rate. The case study demonstrates the high costs of irrigation services compared to the low income derived from irrigation production in smallholder schemes and hence the need for renewed public intervention and subsidisation, especially on account of the current context of management transfer, privatisation, and liberalisation. The paper suggests a shift in the underlying policy and societal mindset about the water charging system for smallholder irrigation. Cost recovery and water charges should not be considered as being a further burden or deterring factor for smallholder irrigation, but rather as an incentive towards increasing production and ultimately improving their contribution to the country’s economy.