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Agroforestry has potential for strengthening the climate change resilience of smallholder farmers in Southeast Asia. In Indonesia, the food security challenges faced by smallholders will likely worsen due to climate change impacts. Agroforestry provides and option for strengthening climate change resilience, while contributing to food access, income, health, and environmental stability. To evaluate the evidence for such benefits, this systematic review identifies 22 peer-reviewed articles published between 2000 and 2019 which assess agroforestry’s contributions to food security in Indonesia, mostly in Java or Sumatra. Analysis of the studies indicate that traditional and commercial agroforestry contribute to food security in diverse ways: for example, traditional homegardens offer 20% more dietary diversity than commercial counterparts, while commercial homegardens may contribute up to five times more income. Agri-silviculture contributions fall along a timber versus non-timber forest product continuum that displays a similar tradeoff between diversity and income. Those systems with a commercial focus may receive 54% of their income from a single commodity crop such as coffee, while traditional systems allow greater access to plants with medicinal benefits. Nearly all agroforestry systems offered indirect benefits for food security, such as allowing more off-farm work than traditional agriculture and contributing to environmental stability: users of agroforestry were found by one study to collect 83% less fuelwood from natural forests. One study highlighted that agroforestry options have up to 98% greater net present value (for periods over 30 years) compared to slash and burn style agriculture. However, very few studies of Indonesian agroforestry focused explicitly on financial analysis and food security, indicating the need for further research. Given the similar situations faced by many Southeast Asia countries, our findings contribute to emerging trends throughout the region regarding the relationship between agroforestry and food security.

Primary energy demand in Indonesia has rapidly increased, i.e., 43.33% between 2005 and 2016, while domestic energy supply failed to fulfill these needs leading to the reliance on the energy import. Meanwhile, a vast area of degraded land in Indonesia also created an opportunity for biofuel production, fulfilling energy demand, as well as restoring the land with environmental and socio-economic benefits. This paper provides an overview of identified potential and challenges associated with biofuel production from degraded land in Indonesia. Our preliminary findings highlighted that some biofuel species in Indonesia are suitable to grow in degraded land and potentially restore the land that may not be suitable for current agricultural production and/or reforestation. The initial finding also shows that culturally familiar species and stable markets are favorable terms of biofuel-species selection for the landowners. Supportive agricultural-extension services such as knowledge and technology for honey production can provide an added value in this concept, in addition to social (e.g., strengthening social solidarity and employment opportunities) and environmental (e.g., carbon storage, soil moisture, erosion control, and biodiversity) benefits. Meanwhile, to create this overall initiative to be successful, a supportive measure from the policymakers is needed. Further research on the capacity of biofuel species to restore degraded lands in different biophysical profiles. Analysis of biofuel production feedstocks and potential co-benefits viable business models, and the stable market is necessary to maximize benefit from biofuel production and to restore the degraded lands in Indonesia. Keywords: biofuel production, renewable energy, restoring

When restoring degraded landscapes, approaches capable of striking a balance between improving environmental services and enhancing human wellbeing need to be considered. Agroforestry is an important option for restoring degraded land and associated ecosystem functions. Using survey, key informant interview and rapid carbon stock appraisal (RaCSA) methods, this study was conducted in five districts in West Java province to examine potential carbon stock in agroforestry systems practiced by smallholder farmers on degraded landscapes. Six agroforestry systems with differing carbon stocks were identified: gmelina (Gmelina arborea Roxb.) + cardamom (Amomum compactum), manglid (Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre) + cardamom, caddam (Neolamarckiacadamba (Roxb.) Bosser) + cardamom, caddam + elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.), mixed-tree + fishpond, and mixed-tree lots. Compared to other systems, mixed-tree lots had the highest carbon stock at 108.9 Mg ha−1. Carbon stock variations related to species density and diversity. Farmers from research sites said these systems also prevent soil erosion and help to restore degraded land. Farmers’ adoption of agroforestry can be enhanced by the implementation of supportive policies and measures, backed by scientific research.

Despite ongoing debates about the viability of sustaining economic growth while maintaining environmental integrity, international sustainability agendas increasingly propose reconciling socio-economic development and global environmental goals. Achieving these goals is impeded by limited funding and a lack of information on where financial flows to integrate environment and development are targeted. We analyze World Bank and Global Environment Facility data to investigate the extent and distribution of such funding across the tropics. We find a misalignment between funding flows and need with highly biodiverse, low development (HBLD) countries receiving no more funding than non-HBLD countries. Countries with low biodiversity receive more funding than highly biodiverse countries and there was no statistical association between a country's development status and funds received. Rather than environment-development need, funding appears to be driven by governance and political-economic factors. Future research should investigate how such factors and funding flows are associated with conservation and development outcomes. This study analyzes 381 projects of the World Bank and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) concluded between 1995 and 2013 to show how much money is spent on joint conservation and development in the tropics, where the money is directed, whether it is directed to areas of greatest environmental and development need, and finally what factors drive funding allocation decisions. The total extent of funding was US$16.5 billion across 75 countries, representing approximately US$870 million per year. Countries with high biodiversity and low human development receive no more funding for integrated conservation and development than other countries. Notably, countries with a low biodiversity status receive relatively more funding than highly biodiverse countries and there was no association between development need and funds received. Therefore, we find that neither biodiversity nor human development status explain funding allocation, but rather that governance and political-economic factors are most likely more influential. This study analyzes the extent and distribution of World Bank and GEF funding for joint conservation and development in the tropics, whether it is directed to areas of greatest environmental and development need, and finally what factors drive funding allocation decisions. Total spending was US$16.5 billion across 75 countries. We find that neither biodiversity nor HDI status are driving funding allocation, but rather that governance and political-economic factors are most likely more influential. © 2020 The Authors

Indonesia has 14 million ha of degraded and marginal land, which provides very few benefits for human wellbeing or biodiversity. This degraded land may require restoration. The leguminous tree Pongamia pinnata syn. Milettia pinnata (pongamia) has potential for producing biofuel while simultaneously restoring degraded land. However, there is limited information on this potential for consideration. This paper aims to address the scientific knowledge gap on pongamia by exploring its potential as a biofuel and for restoring degraded land in Indonesia. We applied a literature review to collect relevant information of pongamia, which we analyzed through narrative qualitative and narrative comparative methods with careful compilation and scientific interpretation of retrieved information. The review revealed that pongamia occurs naturally across Indonesia, in Sumatra, Java, Bali, Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. It can grow to a height of 15–20 m and thrive in a range of harsh environmental conditions. Its seeds can generate up to 40% crude pongamia oil by weight. It is a nitrogen-fixing tree that can help restore degraded land and improve soil properties. Pongamia also provides wood, fodder, medicine, fertilizer and biogas. As a multipurpose species, pongamia holds great potential for combating Indonesia’s energy demand and restoring much of the degraded land. However, the potential competition for land and for raw material with other biomass uses must be carefully managed.

Under changing land use in tropical Asia, there is evidence of forest product diversification through implementation of tree-based farming by smallholders. This paper assesses in two locations, West Java, Indonesia and eastern Bangladesh, current land use conditions from the perspective of smallholder farmers, the factors that facilitate their adoption of tree farming, and the potential of landscape-scale approaches to foster sustainable land management. Data were collected through rapid rural appraisals, focus group discussions, field observations, semi-structured interviews of farm households and key informant interviews of state agricultural officers. Land at both study sites is typically fragmented due to conversion of forest to agriculture and community settlement. Local land use challenges are associated with pressures of population increase, poverty, deforestation, shortage of forest products, lack of community-scale management, weak tenure, underdeveloped markets, government decision-making with insufficient involvement of local people, and poor extension services. Despite these challenges, smallholder tree farming is found to be successful from farmers' perspectives. However, constraints of local food crop cultivation traditions, insecure land tenure, lack of capital, lack of knowledge, lack of technical assistance, and perceived risk of investing in land due to local conflict (in Bangladesh) limit farmers' willingness to adopt this land use alternative. Overcoming these barriers to adoption will require management at a landscape scale, including elements of both segregation and integration of land uses, supported by competent government policies and local communities having sufficiently high social capital.

Ecological restoration efforts in Indonesia have proliferated since the severe forest and peat fires in 2015. These efforts accommodate socio-economic sustainability and focus on reducing anthropogenic pressure on the ecosystem. As a sustainable livelihood option, agroforestry can enhance community welfare and restore the degraded ecosystem. Local communities in Indonesia possess knowledge related to the management of the ecosystem and practice many traditional agroforestry systems, e.g. local timber gardens—repong damar, simpukng and tembawang. This traditional knowledge is evaluated based on the centuries of human interaction with the environment. This chapter reviews various agroforestry systems and their local values in a peat swamp ecosystem useful for peatland restoration. We identify various traditional agroforestry systems that can be practiced in a degraded peat swamp area and to restore the associate ecosystem. Building on this, we suggest future approaches, focusing on advocacy and dissemination of traditional knowledge and practices. Further, a study on rebuilding and documenting traditional knowledge and agroforestry practices in a peat swamp ecosystem is crucial.

Demand for food and energy is constantly increasing in line with the global population and there are widespread concerns about environmental conservation. This chapter provides an overview of the identified potential to restore and utilize degraded land through an integrated biofuel- and food-production system that can also conserve the environment. Our findings highlight that the biofuel species Nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) and Kemiri sunan [Reutealis trisperma (Blanco) Airy Shaw] in Indonesia are suitable to grow with local food crops on degraded land. Such integrated systems on degraded land are economically and socially favorable for local farmers. Producing biofuel and food on degraded land can also avoid compromising agricultural land use and production, while minimizing the harmful environmental consequences. However, for long-term sustainability of the system, and due to biodiversity and environmental concerns, there is a need to implement a mixed landscape approach using a “segregation” and “aggregation” land-management strategy, supported by competent government policies and local communities with sufficient social capital.

Hypsizygus marmoreus is an edible and medicinal mushroom belongs to Basidiomycetes. The optimal culture conditions for the vegetative growth of brown and white strains of H. marmoreus were investigated to obtain suitable farming condition. Temperature suitable and unsuitable for vegetative growth was obtained at 20 and 35oC, respectively. The both strains of H. mermoreus love medium temperature and the mycelial growth was well developed at 20-25oC. This mushroom prefer pH ranging 6-8 for mycelial growth. The highest and lowest mycelial growth was found at pH 7 and 5 of both strains, respectively. Among 5 different carbon sources, sucrose was the best, whereas, maltose and lactose were the worst. The most suitable nitrogen sources were CaNO3 (in brown strain 65.6 mm and in white strain 56.3 mm) and the most unsuitable was NH_4H_2PO_4 (in brown strain 44.02 mm and in white strain 40.2 mm). Five different culture media were used to screen the optimal mycelial growth of H. marmoreus. PDA and YM (yeast-malt extract) were the most suitable and Czapek dox and Hennerberg were the most unfavorable for vegetative growth, whereas, glucose peptone was moderately suitable. The highest and lowest vegetative growth was observed in media prepared with mango (Mangifera indica) and koroi (Albizia procera) sawdust, respectively. However, for both strains, 3 weeks were required to complete mycelium running in mango sawdust, whereas, 4 weeks were spent to get 100% mycelium running in mahagoni (Swietenia mahagoni) and koroi sawdust. The premordia and fruiting bodies of H. marmoreus were formed in the mango sawdust medium sooner. The fruiting bodies of brown strain were formed earlier than white strain after occurrence of primordia. In case of limiting ventilation, the stem development was found to be good but no cap was seen to be formed. Ventilation influenced the growth and development of fruit body of H. marmoreus. Therefore, it could be said that physiochemical requirement for the vegetative growth is strictly considerable and results focused in this paper could be followed by farmers to scale up farming of H. marmoreus in Bangladesh.

Southeast (SE) Asia holds high regional biodiversity and endemism levels but is also one of the world's most threatened regions. Local, regional and global threats could have severe consequences for the future survival of many species and the provision of ecosystem services. In the face of myriad pressing environmental problems, we carried out a research prioritisation exercise involving 64 experts whose research relates to conservation biology and sustainability in SE Asia. Experts proposed the most pressing research questions which, if answered, would advance the goals of biodiversity conservation and sustainable development in SE Asia. We received a total of 333 questions through three rounds of elicitation, ranked them (by votes) following a workshop and grouped them into themes. The top 100 questions depict SE Asia as a region where strong pressures on biodiversity interact in complex and poorly understood ways. They point to a lack of information about multiple facets of the environment, while exposing the many threats to biodiversity and human wellbeing. The themes that emerged indicate the need to evaluate specific drivers of biodiversity loss (wildlife harvesting, agricultural expansion, climate change, infrastructure development, pollution) and even to identify which species and habitats are most at risk. They also suggest the need to study the effectiveness of practice-based solutions (protected areas, ecological restoration), the human dimension (social interventions, organisational systems and processes and, the impacts of biodiversity loss and conservation interventions on people). Finally, they highlight gaps in fundamental knowledge of ecosystem function. These 100 questions should help prioritise and coordinate research, conservation, education and outreach activities and the distribution of scarce conservation resources in SE Asia. Accepted version The workshop was funded by a generous donation from Haiyi Holdings Pte Ltd. to the Department of Biological Sciences of the National University of Singapore.

Indonesia has a large area of degraded land, i.e. 30 million ha, which could potentially be utilized for biofuel plantations. The leguminous tree pongamia (Pongamia pinnata syn. Milettia pinnata) could be utilized to produce biofuel while restoring degraded land. Here, we explore the potential of pongamia as a source of biofuel and for restoring degraded land in Indonesia. Pongamia occurs across Indonesia, in Sumatra, Java, Bali, West Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. It grows to a height of 15–20 m and can grow in a range of environmental conditions. Its seeds can generate up to 40% crude oil by weight. It can help to restore degraded land and improve soil properties. Pongamia also provides wood, fodder, medicine, fertilizer and biogas. Therefore, as a multipurpose species, pongamia holds great potential to combat Indonesia’s energy crisis and to restore much of the degraded land.

Large areas of deforested and degraded land, particularly degraded peatlands, need a viable long-term solution for restoration, ideally one that ensures energy security without compromising food security or biodiversity conversation. To address a knowledge gap on the most adaptive bioenergy crop(s) for degraded lands, this research project assessed the survival and growth performance of potential bioenergy crops to restore burned and degraded peatlands. Our methodology compared the bioenergy species with the potential to survive in extreme environments, i.e., gamal [Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp.], kaliandra (Calliandra calothyrsus Meissner), kemiri sunan [Reutealis trisperma (Blanco) Airy Shaw], and nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum L.). Observed parameters are plant survival rates, tree height, and circular stem growth. The experiment was conducted between March 2016 to February 2017 in a two-hectare demonstration plot on burned and degraded peatland in Buntoi village, Pulang Pisau, Central Kalimantan province. Using a split plot design, two treatments were given to each species, i.e., monoculture plantation and agroforestry (intercropped with Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.), with each treatment, the species were replicated on two separate plots. Results indicate that nyamplung is the most adoptable species followed by kemiri sunan, however both species performed very well under agroforestry treatment when compared with monoculture. Further study is needed to assess the productivity and associate biofuel yield.

Indonesia has approximately 16.8 Mha of degraded lands. These lands have the potential to grow biofuel species to meet the need for energy security, income generation and land restoration. As a promising species Calophyllum inophyllum is suitable to grow in 5.7 Mha of degraded land in Indonesia and could contribute to green energy production and restoration of these degraded lands. During the growing stage, this species can grow up to 1 m in height per year and tolerates to harsh environmental conditions. Its seed provides high levels of non-edible oil, thus making it ideal for biodiesel production. In addition, during the biodiesel production process, its waste and by-products can be used as a raw material in pharmaceuticals and cosmetic industries, and as a compost for soil enrichment. Growing various cash crops with Calophyllum inophyllum as agroforestry can provide extra income to farmers, thus create added value of Calophyllum inophyllum cultivation.

Understanding the linkages between social and ecological systems is key to developing sustainable natural resource management (NRM) institutions. Frequently, however, insufficient attention is paid to the historical development of NRM institutions. Instead, discussion largely focuses on models of economic efficiency at the expense of the cultural, historical, and ecological contexts within which institutions develop. Here we use the research program of historical ecology to explore the development, maintenance, and change of two contemporary fire management institutions in northern Australia and Colorado, USA, to demonstrate how social institutions and ecological systems change and resist change over time and how institutions interact across scales to negotiate contrasting goals and motivations. We argue that these NRM institutions are not strictly speaking evolutionary or adaptive, and that historical context is critical when evaluating how and why particular institutions and institutional relationships develop. As with ecosystems, the present characteristics of the NRM institutions are dependent on what has happened before and their efficacy can only be evaluated retrospectively. Therefore, an understanding of history is essential to questions of the desirability and feasibility of institutional change where such shifts are required from an ecological, social, or economic perspective. We further propose that institutional conflict arises from the differing goals and motives of resource management institutions at different scales. Our cases reveal that larger-scale institutions can be successful at achieving narrowly defined goals but often fall short of achieving socially desirable sustainable outcomes. Our findings support the use of narratives of community history, place, and being in considering the resilience and sustainability of social-ecological systems. We offer that historical ecology is complementary with institutional and economic approaches to the analysis of NRM institutions, and possesses a particular strength in linking ecology to the values and norms of small social groups.

The provision of ecosystem services is directly related to the type of land use and land cover and management practices in a given area. Changes in land use and land cover can alter the supply of ecosystem services and affect the well-being of both humanity and nature. This study analyses the spatiotemporal variations of land use and land cover and quantifies the change in three important ecosystem services (food production, carbon storage, and habitat quality) in the Koshi River Basin, Nepal during 1996–2016 by using freely available data and tools such as, Landsat satellite images and the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) model. During the observed time period, there was an overall gain in urban areas (190 sq.km), forests (773 sq.km) and grassland (431 sq.km); loss of cultivated land (220 sq.km) and shrub lands (847 sq.km), mostly occurring in the lowlands (≤1000 m). As a result of the land cover changes, while food production and carbon storage showed a declining trend, overall habitat quality in the basin increased. There is a need to design novel and effective landscape approaches that address local realities and that will aid the maintenance of ecosystem services. We recommend landscape level planning to improve urban and agricultural sectors and focus on halting the loss of ecosystem services.

In the Padma floodplain of Bangladesh, the traditional system of agriculture has become unsustainable due to high population growth. Mango-based agroforestry which has been practiced by the farmers since the 1990s, is a promising alternative and is considered as one of the few options to lift farmers out of poverty and improve livelihood security. This paper examines the potential of mango-based agroforestry to improve livelihoods, using data collected by rapid rural appraisal, farmer participatory research, stakeholder analysis and a farm household survey in six representative villages in the floodplain. Farmers with the least land were found to allocate a higher percentage of their land to agroforestry, and the increased income from agroforestry compared to other agricultural systems helps reduce relative poverty. This income maintains basic household needs, providing food security and fuelwood, and contributes to healthcare, housing and sanitation conditions, and meeting educational expenses.

Shifting cultivation, which is still prevalent in the uplands of eastern Bangladesh, contributes significantly to forest loss and is the main cause of land degradation. This paper presents the causes and consequences of shifting cultivation and its potential land use alternatives. The analysis presented is primarily qualitative with a supplementary quantitative analysis of the causes of forest loss by logistic regression. The results of the study show that traditional land practices, exacerbated by poverty and associated with a lack of technical knowledge is the main cause for the continuation of unsustainable shifting cultivation. Population pressure, inadequate land for cultivation, low education levels, policy planning and implementation without local participation are all factors that influence farmers’ decision to continue shifting cultivation. Intensive land management through agroforestry is a promising alternative that can sustainably manage the remaining forest resources. If adopted, such systems potentially provide good economic returns, and may significantly reduce rural poverty.

This research was conducted in six typical villages of Northern Bangladesh. A sample of 170 farmers was selected. Research indicates that the farmers practising agroforestry own small farms and the income of agroforestry helps them to reduce their poverty, maintain their socio-economic needs and sustain their livelihoods. Agroforestry is not a new concept in the study area. The people have been practicing agroforestry traditionally in the form of home gardens, hedgerows and alley cropping. Homestead agroforestry is an age old practice. Alley cropping and hedgerow agroforestry systems are comparatively new. Yet alley cropping is now most popular and is widely accepted in the study area because of its socio-economic advantages and environmental sustainability.

Research was conducted in Alutilla Valley in eastern Bangladesh to identify the nature of existing agroforestry systems and to identify potential agroforestry models that could ameliorate currently degrading forest resources Data were collected through farmer participatory research and a structured quarterly survey in two villages. Qualitative and supplementary quantitative analysis methods were used to assess the financial potential of agroforestry systems. Various patterns of agroforestry exist in the study site, but all have two common principles, namely ‘integration with agriculture’ and ‘multi-functionality’. Two agroforestry models suitable for adoption by farmers have been identified. Multi-strata agroforestry, based on a fruit and timber tree canopy with vegetables and tuber species in the understorey, can be practiced in the shifting cultivation fields near settlements. Fruit and timber tree-based conservation agroforestry is well suited to manage large-scale biologically depleted landscapes. Both systems yield early financial returns, facilitating the change from shifting cultivation to multi-strata agroforestry or fruit and tree-based conservation agroforestry. Research was conducted in Alutilla Valley in eastern Bangladesh to identify the nature of existing agroforestry systems and to identify potential agroforestry models that could ameliorate currently degrading forest resources Data were collected through farmer participatory research and a structured quarterly survey in two villages. Qualitative and supplementary quantitative analysis methods were used to assess the financial potential of agroforestry systems. Various patterns of agroforestry exist in the study site, but all have two common principles, namely ‘integration with agriculture’ and ‘multi-functionality’. Two agroforestry models suitable for adoption by farmers have been identified. Multi-strata agroforestry, based on a fruit and timber tree canopy with vegetables and tuber species in the understorey, can be practiced in the shifting cultivation fields near settlements. Fruit and timber tree-based conservation agroforestry is well suited to manage large-scale biologically depleted landscapes. Both systems yield early financial returns, facilitating the change from shifting cultivation to multi-strata agroforestry or fruit and tree-based conservation agroforestry.

Migration is a relevant phenomenon with important implications at three different levels: local, regional and international. On the wider level, migration is tightly related with globalization and with the workflow of human resources towards the host countries; on a local level, rural to urban migration is one of the most important aspects of the economy of the state. This paper analyses the situation of Bangladesh, with a particular focus on the causes and consequences of women and children migration, who move to big cities like Rajshahi to find work and to enhance their livelihood. The paper looks at the role of work in acquiring dignity, the filial duty in a traditionally hierarchically structured society and also women and children as active-decision makers in the migration process. The paper also focuses on the characteristics of migrant people, with sex and age disaggregated data, and statistics about the different families’ situations and the type of work in which the migrant people are involved in.

Homestead agroforestry, in the form of homegardens, has a long tradition in many developing countries. These systems are an intimate mix of diversified agricultural crops and multipurpose trees planted, maintained by members of the household. This paper aims to explore the species composition commonly found in the homestead agroforestry systems in the Ganges valley of northern Bangladesh and their contribution to local livelihoods. Three villages i.e., ‘Capasia’, ‘Chak Capasia’ and ‘Baduria’ were selected as the primary study area. Data were collected by (1) rapid rural appraisal, (2) direct observation, (3) informal and structured interviews with a purposive sample of 90 households. A total of 53 plant species under 32 families were identified from the study area and it was found that the relative density were highest for Areca catechu (areca palm), Artocarpus heterophyllus (jackfruit) and Mangifera indica (mango). Financial analysis showed that homestead agroforestry net benefit increases with the increasing landholding classes. However, no significant difference was found between the number of species in different farm sizes, contrasting other studies that accused this relationship. The comparison of Shannon-Wiener index between agroforestry systems and natural forest showed no statistical difference, reinforcing the role of homegardens in biological conservation in Bangladesh. Therefore, increasing agroforestry practices in homesteads, should be the strategy for enhancing tree cover in order to meet basic needs of the local people and for environmental sustainability. Homestead agroforestry, in the form of homegardens, has a long tradition in many developing countries. These systems are an intimate mix of diversified agricultural crops and multipurpose trees planted, maintained by members of the household. This paper aims to explore the species composition commonly found in the homestead agroforestry systems in the Ganges valley of northern Bangladesh and their contribution to local livelihoods. Three villages i.e., ‘Capasia’, ‘Chak Capasia’ and ‘Baduria’ were selected as the primary study area. Data were collected by (1) rapid rural appraisal, (2) direct observation, (3) informal and structured interviews with a purposive sample of 90 households. A total of 53 plant species under 32 families were identified from the study area and it was found that the relative density were highest for Areca catechu (areca palm), Artocarpus heterophyllus (jackfruit) and Mangifera indica (mango). Financial analysis showed that homestead agroforestry net benefit increases with the increasing landholding classes. However, no significant difference was found between the number of species in different farm sizes, contrasting other studies that accused this relationship. The comparison of Shannon-Wiener index between agroforestry systems and natural forest showed no statistical difference, reinforcing the role of homegardens in biological conservation in Bangladesh. Therefore, increasing agroforestry practices in homesteads, should be the strategy for enhancing tree cover in order to meet basic needs of the local people and for environmental sustainability.

This paper examines the factors of rural-urban migration in Bangladesh. It is found that the underlying cause of migration is mainly driven by economic and social factors i.e., unemployment, poverty, political and ethnic conflicts, religious etc. In the migration process the push factors are more active then pull factors, as poverty and unemployment always push the poor villagers to change their residence to the cities. After migration majority of the migrants comparatively improved their livelihoods in the city. Although poor migrants have contributed significantly to the economic growth and gained from higher wages in higher productivity areas, they remain socially and economically excluded from the wider benefits of economic growth such as access to food and education, housing, sanitation and freedom. The study results highlight the need to target migrant groups and urban poor within urban areas in the provision of availability of work and social care services.

A relatively large percentage of the population in Bangladesh lives under the poverty line and is affected by the country’s degrading natural resources. Agroforestry has been seen as one of the few options to lift people out of poverty. Research into the costs and benefits of agroforestry was undertaken in Capasia Village in Northern Bangladesh. Initial results indicate that agroforestry may not only be an optimal livelihood solution for poor farmers, biodiversity conservation and environmental sustainability but agroforestry systems also provide good economic rates of return. Thus the farmers who engage in agroforestry are benefited in different ways. Key words: Agroforestry, poverty, farmers, livelihoods, conservation.

This paper is conceived at a time when new paradigms are sought for the development of a framework to deal with the problem of forest resources degradation. Deforestation in Bangladesh, has reached an alarming rate in recent years. The forest coverage of Bangladesh is one of the lowest and the deforestation rate is the highest of any country in the world. Coupled with the process of deforestation, flawed afforestration programmes have seriously exposed Bangladesh to environmental vulnerability. Considering this situation various strategies should be taken at different levels. The main objective of this paper is to suggest the possible steps that Bangladesh could halt and reverse the trend of deforestation. An extensive literature review and structured interviews of key informants have been used to collect relevant information to understand the reasons and consequences of forest degradation in the country. Based on the information gathered, this paper suggests some positive steps where the Government could be the main mitigating actor by implementing integrated programmes, which will also ensure mass awareness and wider impact.

Drastic deforestation is a major problem of Bangladesh which is contributing to negative downstream impacts on the environment. To address this problem various measurements should be taken at different scales. The main objective of this study is to suggest the possible steps that Bangladesh could halt and reverse the trend of deforestation. An extensive literature review and interviews with government officials, professionals and NGO workers have been used to collect relevant information on the drivers of deforestation in the country. Based on the information gathered, this paper presents the reasons and extent of deforestation, and suggests some positive steps where the Government could be the main mitigating performer by implementing integrated programmes, which will also ensure mass awareness and wider impact. Local NGOs and international bodies must also formulate adequate plans to protect valuable areas of remaining forest. DOI: 10.3126/on.v8i1.4340

Resumen en: Mushroom is an important vegetable usually grows in the forest with its nutritive and medicinal value. It can also be cultivated domestically in a smal...

TACs are a group of primary headaches with pain and autonomic features in the distribution of trigeminal nerve on one side. They are also associated with marked restlessness/agitation. The TACs include the following 5 entities: cluster headache (CH), paroxysmal hemicranias (PH), short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache with conjunctival injection and tearing (SUNCT), Short lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with cranial autonomic symptoms (SUNA), and hemicranias continua (HC). All TACs are episodic headache disorders except HC. The TACs differ in attack duration and frequency. CH has the longest attack duration (15-180 minutes) and relatively low attack frequency. PH has intermediate duration (2-30 minutes) and intermediate attack frequency. SUNCT and SUNA have the shortest attack (1-600 seconds) duration and the highest attack frequency. Hemicrania continua are characterized by continuous strictly unilateral pain in trigeminal distribution with variable exacerbations. The most specific part of this group is that they all respond to highly ‘selective’ drug. The drugs commonly used for other headache disorders are largely ineffective here. CH responds to lithium and verapamil. SUNCT and SUNA show response to lamotrigine. HC and PH show dramatic response to indomethacin.

In Northern Bangladesh, generally mango trees are planted as agroforest that gives higher Net Present Value (NPV) than traditional agriculture. Mango anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz. is seen as a very destructive and widely distributed disease, which results in poor market value. Five fungicides such as Cupravit, Bavistin, Dithane M-45, Thiovit and Redomil were tested against conidial germination of C. gloeosporioides. Dithane M-45 and Redomil were the most effective when the conidia were immersed for 10~20 minutes at 500~1000 ppm concentrations. Antifungal activities of 13 plant extracts were tested against conidial germination of C. gloeosporioides. Conidial germination of C. gloeosporioides was completely inhibited in Curcuma longa (leaf and rhizome), Tagetes erecta (leaf) and Zingiber officinales (rhizome) after 15 minutes of incubation respectively.

One of the main causes of tropical forest loss is conversion to agriculture, which is constantly increasing as a dominant land cover in the tropics. The loss of forests greatly affects biodiversity and ecosystem services. This paper assesses the economic return from increasing tree cover in agricultural landscapes in two tropical locations, West Java, Indonesia and eastern Bangladesh. Agroforestry systems are compared with subsistence seasonal food-crop-based agricultural systems. Data were collected through rapid rural appraisal, field observation, focus groups and semi-structured interviews of farm households. The inclusion of agroforestry tree crops in seasonal agriculture improved the systems’ overall economic performance (net present value), even when it reduced understorey crop production. However, seasonal agriculture has higher income per unit of land area used for crop cultivation compared with the tree establishment and development phase of agroforestry farms. Thus, there is a trade-off between short-term loss of agricultural income and longer-term economic gain from planting trees in farmland. For resource-poor farmers to implement this change, institutional support is needed to improve their knowledge and skills with this unfamiliar form of land management, sufficient capital for the initial investment, and an increase in the security of land tenure. One of the main causes of tropical forest loss is conversion to agriculture, which is constantly increasing as a dominant land cover in the tropics. The loss of forests greatly affects biodiversity and ecosystem services. This paper assesses the economic return from increasing tree cover in agricultural landscapes in two tropical locations, West Java, Indonesia and eastern Bangladesh. Agroforestry systems are compared with subsistence seasonal food-crop-based agricultural systems. Data were collected through rapid rural appraisal, field observation, focus groups and semi-structured interviews of farm households. The inclusion of agroforestry tree crops in seasonal agriculture improved the systems’ overall economic performance (net present value), even when it reduced understorey crop production. However, seasonal agriculture has higher income per unit of land area used for crop cultivation compared with the tree establishment and development phase of agroforestry farms. Thus, there is a trade-off between short-term loss of agricultural income and longer-term economic gain from planting trees in farmland. For resource-poor farmers to implement this change, institutional support is needed to improve their knowledge and skills with this unfamiliar form of land management, sufficient capital for the initial investment, and an increase in the security of land tenure.

Swidden cultivation can contribute to deforestation and land degradation, which can subsequently result in a number of serious environmental problems. This paper examines the economic and social potential of agroforestry systems and the barriers to their widespread adoption, as a land use alternative to swidden cultivation, which may potentially help protect local forest. The Gunung Salak valley in West Java, Indonesia is presented as a case study. Based on farmers’ and experts’ assessment, costs and benefits have been estimated, which show that the two investigated agroforestry systems have higher net present value and benefit-cost ratio (B/C) than the two swidden cultivation systems. Tree ownership also creates more permanent rights to farmland and is prestigious in the community. Agroforestry products (fruit, vegetables etc.) have high monetary value and help strengthen social cohesion when shared with neighbors. However, farmers are reluctant to implement agroforestry. Stated reasons are related to both culture and capacity. Farmers practicing agroforestry are less involved in forest clearing and forest products collection than swidden farmers indicating that it may contribute positively to conservation of local forests. Increasing the adoption of agroforestry farming in the study area will require support to overcome capacity constraints. Swidden cultivation can contribute to deforestation and land degradation, which can subsequently result in a number of serious environmental problems. This paper examines the economic and social potential of agroforestry systems and the barriers to their widespread adoption, as a land use alternative to swidden cultivation, which may potentially help protect local forest. The Gunung Salak valley in West Java, Indonesia is presented as a case study. Based on farmers’ and experts’ assessment, costs and benefits have been estimated, which show that the two investigated agroforestry systems have higher net present value and benefit-cost ratio (B/C) than the two swidden cultivation systems. Tree ownership also creates more permanent rights to farmland and is prestigious in the community. Agroforestry products (fruit, vegetables etc.) have high monetary value and help strengthen social cohesion when shared with neighbors. However, farmers are reluctant to implement agroforestry. Stated reasons are related to both culture and capacity. Farmers practicing agroforestry are less involved in forest clearing and forest products collection than swidden farmers indicating that it may contribute positively to conservation of local forests. Increasing the adoption of agroforestry farming in the study area will require support to overcome capacity constraints.