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The relationship of anthropometric and training characteristics with race time were investigated in 39 male and 24 female open-water ultra-endurance swimmers in a 26.4 km open-water ultra-swim, using bi- and multivariate analyses. For the men, body height, Body Mass Index, length of arm, and swimming speed during training were related to race time in the bivariate analysis. For the women, swimming speed during training was associated with performance in the bivariate analysis. In the multivariate analysis for the men, Body Mass Index and swimming speed during training were related to race time. DOI 10.2466/05.25.PMS.111.5.463-474

The ability to monitor training is critical to the process of quantifying training periodization plans, yet weekly patterns of volume and intensity for Paralympic swimmers before competition have not been reported. Sixteen swimmers were monitored prospectively over a 16-week training block constituting 4 training phases (early, mid, late, and taper), before a World Championship. Training volume (total and main set distance) and intensity (percentage of peak heart rate [HR], swimming velocity, and rate of perceived exertion [RPE]) were quantified using an online training diary, and changes in training load were examined over the 4 training phases. For a subgroup of swimmers (n = 12), with similarities in underlying disability, change in performance between Selection Trials and World Championships was also quantified. Substantial increases in total training volume (29.6%) were observed late phase, and main set volume was reduced substantially (24.1%) during the taper phase. Small to moderate increases in training intensity (HR 2.4%, velocity 4.5%, and RPE 6.7%) were observed late phase and maintained through the taper. There were no clear associations between discrete training measures and competition performance. Swimmers competing at the Paralympic level seem to follow traditional periodized patterns of training, similar to those of swimmers at the Olympic level, before competition. Coaches of elite swimmers with a disability should review their prescribed patterns of training before major competition: A more substantial taper (larger reduction in volume) could elicit a greater improvement in performance. Training prescription should account for different disabilities and classes and individual circumstances of elite swimmers with a disability. KEY WORDS Volume intensity, taper, disability, competition, swimming

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationships between possible predictive measures of a 50 m front crawl swimming and a 22.86 m flutter kicking speed. Ten women who were National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I collegiate swimmers and 10 women who were recreational swimmers (mean [+ or -] SD = 20.6 [+ or -] 1.6 years; 66.7 [+ or -] 10.3 kg; 166.7 [+ or -] 8.8 cm) volunteered for the study. Anthropometric measures were obtained including height, leg length, lower leg length, and foot length. Ankle flexibility was assessed by measuring ankle plantar flexion and ankle inversion. Lower body power was measured using a vertical jump. Swimming and kicking speed were measured as the time to complete a 50 m front crawl and a 22.86 m flutter kick, respectively. Significant moderate correlations were demonstrated between ankle plantar flexion and flutter kicking speed (r = 0.509); age and 22.86 m kick time (r = 0.608); age and 50 m swim time (r = 0.476); and 50 m swim time and 22.86 m kick time (r = 0.790). No significant correlations were observed between any of the anthropometric measurements or vertical jump power with either kicking or swimming speed. As anecdotally noted by swim coaches over the years, this study provides some actual data showing that ankle flexibility significantly influences flutter kick capability. Surprisingly, vertical jump power and body size were not strong predictors of kicking or swimming speed in this group of subjects. Strength and conditioning coaches, swim coaches, and athletes should evaluate and carefully develop ankle flexibility to positively contribute to kicking capabilities. KEY WORDS swimming, performance prediction, flexibility, front crawl, maximal power

Triathletes and elite breath-hold divers show an adaptive response to hypoxia induced by repeated epochs of breath holding. We hypothesized that hypoxic training could also improve swimming coordination. Before and after a 3-month breath-hold training program, 4 male swimmers performed a maximal incremental test on bicycle and a 50-m front crawl race at maximal speed without breathing so that interarm coordination could be assessed. Swim velocity, stroke rate (SR), stroke length (SL), and the arm stroke phases were calculated from video analysis. Arm coordination was quantified in terms of an index of coordination (IdC) based on the time gap between the propulsive phases of each arm. After apnea training, the forced expiratory volume in 1 second was higher (4.85 [+ or -] 0.78 vs. 4.94 [+ or -] 0.81 L, p < 0.05), with concomitant increases in [VO.sub.2]peak, minimal arterial oxygen saturation, and respiratory compensation point values (W and W x [kg.sup.-1]) during the incremental test. Swimming performance was not improved (clean velocity and time on 50 m); however, SR was decreased and SL and IdC were increased. These results indicate that apnea training improves effectiveness at both peak exercise and submaximal exercise and can also improve swimming technique by promoting greater propulsive continuity. KEY WORDS motor control crawl, breath holding, hypoxia

A nonlinear model of training responses was utilized to test whether a 2-phase taper could be more effective than a traditional linear taper. Simulations were conducted using model parameters previously determined in 6 non-athletes trained on a cycle ergometer (non-ATH) and 7 elite swimmers trained in sport-specific conditions (ATH). Linear and 2-phase tapers were compared after a 28-day overload period at 120% of normal training. The 2-phase taper was assumed to be identical to the optimal linear taper, except for the final 3 days during which the training load was varied to maximize the final performance. The optimal linear taper was characterized by a mean training reduction by 32 [+ or -] 6% during 35 [+ or -] 6 days in non-ATH and by 49 [+ or -] 18% during 33 [+ or -] 16 days in ATH. The last 3 days of the 2-phase taper were characterized by a significant increase in training load by 23 [+ or -] 18% in non-ATH and 29 [+ or -] 42% in ATH (p < 0.005). The optimal taper characteristics were not statistically different between non-ATH and ATH. The maximal performance reached with the 2-phase taper was higher by 0.04 [+ or -] 0.02% in non-ATH and 0.01 [+ or -] 0.01% in ATH than with the optimal linear taper (p < 0.001). Positive and negative influences of training on performance were estimated as indicators of adaptation and fatigue, respectively. The negative influence was completely removed during both tapers, whereas the positive influence was slightly further enhanced during the 2-phase pattern. In conclusion, simulations showed that a 20 to 30% increase in training at the end of the taper, as compared to a prolonged reduction in training, allowed additional adaptations without compromising the removal of fatigue. KEY WORDS recovery, modeling, overreaching, training program

Controlled frequency breathing (CFB) is a training technique used by swimmers in an effort to simulate high-intensity workloads by limiting oxygen availability to the body and stimulating anaerobic metabolism. During CFB, a swimmer voluntarily restricts breathing, which, theoretically, limits oxygen availability and stimulates anaerobic metabolism. The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of CFB on blood lactate and metabolic responses during graded increases in swimming intensity. A free swimming (FS) protocol was used to determine blood lactate and heart rate (HR) responses to CFB, while a tethered swimming (TS) protocol was used to determine blood lactate, HR, and ventilatory responses to CFB. The subjects swam four 3-minute trials at workloads of 55, 65, 75, and 85% of peak intensity during both protocols. A total of 46 competitive collegiate swimmers participated in the study. Thirty-four subjects (14 men and 20 women) completed the FS protocol, and 12 subjects (7 men and 5 women) completed the TS protocol. CFB reduced ventilation and [Vo.sub.2] (p < 0.05) during the TS protocol and reduced HR (p < 0.05) during the FS protocol when compared to normal breathing. However, CFB did not alter blood lactate concentrations for either protocol (p > 0.05). Our findings demonstrate that although CFB does not alter the blood lactate response to graded increases in swimming intensity, it appears to reduce the ventilatory and HR responses to exercise. Thus, swim coaches can use CFB at moderate intensities to simulate high-intensity training but should consider adjusting HR training zones to reflect the reduction in HR associated with reduced ventilation. Key Words. hypoxic breathing, hypoxia, tethered swimming, free swimming

Tests were given to competitive swimmers to see if functional training exercises helped to reduce shoulder pain and to increase shoulder muscle strength. Twenty six college swimmers were tested before and after training and incidences of shoulder pain were fewer after the training, even though muscle strength did not increase significantly.

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the extent to which competitive swimmers differed on selected psychological characteristics and behavioral tendencies as a function of their skill level and gender. Kirschenbaum and Wittrock&apos;s (1984) self-regulation (SR) model served as the theoretical framework. Subjects consisted of Australian elite male (n = 79) and elite female (n = 67) swimmers (M age combined = 20.4 yrs.) who competed at the national level, and non-elite male (n = 57) and non-elite female (n = 67) swimmers (M age combined = 17.6 yrs.) who competed at the state and local levels. The best logistic regression model of the probability of being an elite swimmer included 15 of the 100-item survey, and three terms in which the subject&apos;s gender interacted with the item. Results indicated that elites, more than their non-elite peers, engaged in measurably more self regulatory thoughts and behaviors prior to and during the competition. For example, males more than females revealed a willingness to sacrifice recreational time for improving their swim skills, and were more likely to train with greater intensity following a disappointing performance. Nevertheless, there were far more similarities than differences between male and female competitors, particularly among elites. The results, and implications for using self-regulation strategies in competitive swimming, are discussed within the context of the SR model., Identifying the psychological characteristics of elite sports competitors as predictors of sport success has been studied by researchers for many years. It is thought that the ability to determine unique [...]

A sport-specific behavioral checklist lists, for a particular sport, psychological skills to be used at practices and competitions that an athlete can easily check off in order to provide a [...]