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The chapter gives an overview of the political history of Babylonia from the fall of the Hammurabi dynasty to the rise of the Second Dynasty of Isin around 1155 BC—the period of the Kassite dynasty. Originally foreigners with their own traditions and language, this royal house adapted well to the Babylonian social and political environment and catered to the local elites by following traditional conventions of kingship, such as commissioning royal inscriptions and providing continuous worship for the Babylonian gods. These policies were highly successful, and no other royal house occupied the Babylonian throne longer than the Kassite Dynasty. We use contemporary sources as well as later texts to compile a comprehensive overview of the reigns of all thirty-six rulers of this dynasty, with special attention given to problems of historiography and scholarly debate.

ObjectiveBleeding ulcers and erosions are hallmarks of active ulcerative colitis (UC). However, the mechanisms controlling bleeding and mucosal haemostasis remain elusive.DesignWe used high-resolution endoscopy and colon tissue samples of active UC (n = 36) as well as experimental models of physical and chemical mucosal damage in mice deficient for peptidyl-arginine deiminase-4 (PAD4), gnotobiotic mice and controls. We employed endoscopy, histochemistry, live-cell microscopy and flow cytometry to study eroded mucosal surfaces during mucosal haemostasis.ResultsErosions and ulcerations in UC were covered by fresh blood, haematin or fibrin visible by endoscopy. Fibrin layers rather than fresh blood or haematin on erosions were inversely correlated with rectal bleeding in UC. Fibrin layers contained ample amounts of neutrophils coaggregated with neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) with detectable activity of PAD. Transcriptome analyses showed significantly elevatedPAD4expression in active UC. In experimentally inflicted wounds, we found that neutrophils underwent NET formation in a PAD4-dependent manner hours after formation of primary blood clots, and remodelled clots to immunothrombi containing citrullinated histones, even in the absence of microbiota. PAD4-deficient mice experienced an exacerbated course of dextrane sodium sulfate-induced colitis with markedly increased rectal bleeding (96 % vs 10 %) as compared with controls. PAD4-deficient mice failed to remodel blood clots on mucosal wounds eliciting impaired healing. Thus, NET-associated immunothrombi are protective in acute colitis, while insufficient immunothrombosis is associated with rectal bleeding.ConclusionOur findings uncover that neutrophils induce secondary immunothrombosis by PAD4-dependent mechanisms. Insufficient immunothrombosis may favour rectal bleeding in UC.

In this paper, I discuss the authenticity of one of the most controversial Kassite inscriptions known only from post-Kassite copies, the Agum-kakrime Inscription. I revisit the most common arguments brought up against the inscription's authenticity and then discuss it in the context of other Kassite inscriptions known from later copies. I additionally address the proposed financial motivations for possible forgers as well as potential anachronisms and the Sitz im Leben of the copies discovered in the library of Assurbanipal.

Ductal occlusion has been postulated to precipitate focal pancreatic inflammation, while the nature of the primary occluding agents has remained elusive. Neutrophils make use of histone citrullination by peptidyl arginine deiminase-4 (PADI4) in contact to particulate agents to extrude decondensed chromatin as neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). In high cellular density, NETs form macroscopically visible aggregates. Here we show that such aggregates form inside pancreatic ducts in humans and mice occluding pancreatic ducts and thereby driving pancreatic inflammation. Experimental models indicate that PADI4 is critical for intraductal aggregate formation and that PADI4-deficiency abrogates disease progression. Mechanistically, we identify the pancreatic juice as a strong instigator of neutrophil chromatin extrusion. Characteristic single components of pancreatic juice, such as bicarbonate ions and calcium carbonate crystals, induce aggregated NET formation. Ductal occlusion by aggregated NETs emerges as a pathomechanism with relevance in a plethora of inflammatory conditions involving secretory ducts., Pancreatitis often develops as a consequence of ductal obstruction. Here, the authors show that bicarbonate ions initiate the release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) that form pancreatic ductal aggregates and occlude the ducts, thereby driving pancreatitis in mice and humans.

This chapter discusses the relations between two major powers - Elam and Babylonia. The end of 2nd millennium BC is often referred to as the era of international relations, which means that the close contacts of the great powers of the Near East were connected by correspondence, exchange of goods and trade, diplomatic marriages, treaties, as well as violent conflicts. The focus of attention is on those strong powers that are represented in the so-called Amarna correspondence, namely Egypt, the Hittites, Mittani, Assyria and Babylonia. Keywords: Elam; Babylonia; Amarna correspondence