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The condition of European economic democracy is generally recognised to be in a fragile state. Recent discussions have centred on pressures to converge towards an Anglo-American model of flexible and deregulated employment relations and systems, consonant with a broader neoliberal economic governance discourse. Existing approaches suggest an uneven experience between countries around a general trend of deterioration. In this article we offer two new contributions to these debates. First, we introduce findings from an Economic Democracy Index (EDI) we have developed. This goes beyond existing indices of employment and industrial democracy to allow us to examine the changing nature of individual employment rights as well as collective bargaining conditions between European countries. Second, we depart from existing studies of European employment relations, which tend to take a comparative national approach, by situating national employment relations and trajectories within a wider set of spatial and social relations. Qualitative analysis of three country cases (Denmark, Portugal and Slovenia) supplements our EDI analysis. Our evidence suggests the importance of multi-scalar relational and institutional dynamics between social actors at the national scale and those at higher scales such as the European Union in understanding variations in country performance on the EDI.

Population reconstruction techniques was used to assess for the first time the population dynamics of a seagrass, Cymodocea nodosa, exposed to long-term elevated CO2 near three volcanic seeps and compared them with reference sites away from the seeps. Under high CO2, the density of shoots and of individuals (apical shoots), and the vertical and horizontal elongation and production rates, were higher than at the reference sites. Nitrogen limitation effects on rhizome elongation and production rates and on biomass were more evident than CO2 as these were highest at the location where the limitation of nitrogen was highest. At the seep where the availability of CO2 was highest and nitrogen lowest, density of shoots and individuals were highest, probably due to CO2 effects on shoot differentiation and induced reproductive output, respectively. At the three seeps, there was higher short- and long-term shoot recruitment than at the reference sites, and growth rates was around zero, indicating that elevated CO2 increases the turnover of C. nodosa shoots. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

We used population reconstruction techniques to assess for the first time the population dynamics of a seagrass, Cymodocea nodosa, exposed to long-term elevated CO2 near three volcanic seeps and compare them with reference sites away from the seeps. Under high CO2, the density of shoots and of individuals (apical shoots), and the vertical and horizontal elongation and production rates, were higher. Nitrogen effects on rhizome elongation and production rates and on biomass, were stronger than CO2 as these were highest at the location where the availability of nitrogen was highest. At the seep where the availability of CO2 was highest and nitrogen lowest, density of shoots and individuals were highest, probably due to CO2 effects on shoot differentiation and induced reproductive output, respectively. In all three seeps there was higher short- and long-term recruitment and growth rates around zero, indicating that elevated CO2 increases the turnover of C. nodosa shoots.

We seek to advance debate and thinking about economic democracy. While recognising the importance of existing approaches focused upon collective bargaining and workplace organisation, we articulate a perspective that emphasises the importance of individual economic rights, capabilities and freedoms at a time when established norms and protections at work are in retreat in many parts of the world. We outline a framework where both individual rights to self-government of one’s own labour, as well as the right of all citizens to participate in economic decision-making, are emphasised. The framework identifies a set of underlying principles, prerequisites, critical spheres for intervention, progressive institutional arrangements, and policies in pursuit of an expanded agenda around economic democracy. In this way, economic democracy potentially empowers individuals and creates the basis for generating new and sustainable alliances that challenge elite dominance in contemporary capitalism.

The available data from experimental and descriptive studies on seagrass biomass and density responses to nutrient enrichment were analysed to assess the intraspecific mechanisms operating within seagrass populations and whether biomass-density relationships can provide relevant metrics for monitoring seagrasses. The response of shoot biomass and density to nutrient enrichment was dependent on the type of study; the short-term positive response of biomass and density in experimental studies reveals context-specific nutrient limitation of seagrasses. The long-term negative response of descriptive studies probably results from ecosystem-scale events related to nutrient enrichment such as increased turbidity, algal blooms, epiphyte loads and anoxia. Most seagrass species analysed lie in the nonthinning part of the theoretical biomass-density curves. A simultaneous increase in biomass and decrease in density, evidence of self-thinning, were only observed in 4 of 28 studies. The analysis of both the static and the dynamic biomass-density relationships revealed that the slopes increase under nutrient enrichment. Surprisingly, the species-specific slopes (log B-log D) were higher than one, revealing that the B/D ratio, that is, the average shoot biomass, increases with density in all seagrass species analysed. Nutrient enrichment further enhanced this effect as biomass-density slopes increased to even higher values. The main drivers behind the increasing biomass-density slopes under nutrient enrichment were the increase in shoot biomass at densities above a species-specific threshold and/or its decrease below that threshold. Synthesis. Contrasting short- and long-term responses of both biomass and density of seagrasses to nutrient enrichment suggest that the former, positive ones result from nutrient limitation, whereas the later, negative ones are mediated by whole ecosystem responses. In general, shoot biomass of seagrasses increases with density, and nutrient enrichment enhances this effect. Experimental testing of facilitation processes related to clonal integration in seagrasses needs to be done to reveal whether they determine the low incidence of self-thinning and the intriguing biomass-density relationships of seagrass species. The increasing slopes and decreasing intercepts of the species-specific dynamic biomass-density relationships of seagrasses and the decreasing coefficients of variation of both biomass and density constitute relevant, easy-to-collect metrics that may be used in environmental monitoring. EU project ECO-LAGUNES [SOE1/P2/F153]; COST Action [ES0906]; FCT [SFRH/BPD/37368/2007, SFRH/BPD/75307/2010]; NSERC PGSD; Killam Trust info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

The available information on the changes in the reproductive effort (RE) of seagrasses in response to disturbances was reviewed and analysed to assess if seagrasses invest in RE when disturbed, and if this response is related to specific types of disturbance or seagrass traits. In 72% of the documented cases RE increased with disturbance, in 25% it decreased, and in 3% no changes were reported. Overall, seagrass RE increased 4-fold with disturbance. Anthropogenic disturbances had the highest impact on RE (a 13-fold increase); 3 times higher than the effect of natural disturbances. Mechanical and sedimentary/hydrodynamics disturbances caused the highest RE increase (9- and 5-fold, respectively). The positive RE response was significantly correlated with rhizome diameter of seagrasses, but not with shoot size (mass or length), suggesting that species with higher storage capacity have a higher capacity of investing in sexual reproduction when conditions deteriorate. Seagrasses showed a general trend of increasing RE under disturbance; this was evident regardless of the origin and type of disturbance, which suggests that changes in seagrass RE provide a valuable indicator of disturbance in coastal areas.

The dynamics of the seagrass Zostera noltii in established and colonizing meadows were assessed in Ria Formosa lagoon, Southern Portugal. Shoot weight, above:belowground biomass ratio, flowering shoot density, meadow production, and biomass‐density relationships were investigated. Results indicate that the species population dynamics differ clearly in different development stages of the meadows. The overall mean of flowering shoot density was five times higher in the colonizing (83 flowering shoots m )2 ) than in the established meadow (16 flowering shoots m )2 ), revealing a greater contribution of sexual reproduction during the species colonization process. The temporal variation of the biomass‐density relationship in the colonizing meadow showed a cyclic seasonal trajectory, a wider range of data, and a simultaneous peak of biomass and density, suggesting no space limitations constraining the internal packing of shoots during the growing season. In the established meadow, density peaked before biomass in agreement to the dominant role of the clonal architecture of seagrasses in the configuration of closed meadows, suggesting the occurrence of self-thinning and ⁄or regulation of ramet formation. Slope of the biomass‐density relationships was similar in the established and colonizing meadows, generally suggesting similar nutritional conditions, regardless of their muddy and sandy sediments. Plants of the colonizing meadow invest mainly on the belowground fraction (above:belowground biomass ratio

The plant reproductive effort, the seed germination rate and the seedling survival and development of Zostera marina (eelgrass) were assessed in four populations (Fuzeta, Culatra, Barrinha and Armona) at the species’ southern distribution limit in the Eastern Atlantic, the Ria Formosa lagoon. Germinated seeds were individually placed in Petri dishes with natural sandy sediments and kept in a culture chamber at the same temperature and salinity conditions as the natural environment. In addition, seeds from three different depths of Fuzeta population were cultivated in outdoor mesocosms. The populations of Fuzeta and Barrinha showed higher seed production and the seeds produced were heavier than the other populations. The germination of the seeds both in the laboratory and in the outdoor tanks began c. 8‐12 weeks after the collection of the flowering shoots at a water temperature of 22 � C. The spontaneous germination in the laboratory (2.4‐5.3%) and in the mesocosm experiment (5.6‐ 8.9%) was low and from all the germinated seeds (n = 20) only three reached the seedling stage. The spontaneously germinated seeds from Fuzeta survived for a longer period than those from Barrinha, but only the germinated seeds of Barrinha reached the seedling stage (one-leaf seedling stage). In outdoor tanks, higher seed germination and earlier seedling emergence (2 weeks after seeding) and survival (for 208 days) occurred for the seeds obtained from the shallow meadow. The reproductive effort of Z. marina populations of Ria Formosa showed that flowering shoots and seed traits are site-specific. The low reproductive success indicated by the low germination and seedling survival suggests a bottleneck in the species’ reproductive cycle that may account for the scarce presence of the species in Ria Formosa lagoon. The high water temperatures of Ria Formosa in winter may partly explain this bottleneck. Increased temperatures due to climate change may reduce even further the sexual reproduction of Z. marina in its southern distributional limit in the Eastern Atlantic.

The population dynamics of the seagrass Cymodocea nodosa was investigated in three meadows differently affected by the artificial relocation of an inlet in the western sector of the Ria Formosa lagoon, southern Portugal. One meadow was subjected to increasing currents that caused erosion, another one was subjected to an initial episode of burial and a third meadow was undisturbed by the inlet opening. The hydrodynamic/sedimentary condition of meadows was assessed through comparative sediment analysis between the meadow and the adjacent unvegetated area. The studied C. nodosa meadows clearly reflected the resultant hydrodynamic changes and consequent sedimentary disturbances caused by the inlet opening, eleven months prior to sampling. In all meadows except the eroded one, C. nodosa promoted the accumulation and stabilization of sediments with grain-size dominated by a mode of 2.75 ϕ , much finer than the surrounding sediments, which grain-size was dominated by modes of 0.75–1.25 ϕ . Under the strong currents of the eroded meadow, the sediment was much coarser (mode of 0.75 ϕ ), had less organic matter content and was not significantly different from the adjacent unvegetated area. A lower horizontal rhizome elongation, higher shoot mortality and lower shoot recruitment was observed at the eroded meadow indicating a strong population regression. Based on the sediment grain-size of the eroded meadow, it was inferred that the current velocity thresholds for C . nodosa decline occur at water current >60 cm s −1 . Sediment burial resulted in longer leaf sheaths, higher vertical and horizontal rhizome elongation, lower shoot age, lower total biomass and higher shoot recruitment, which suggests population recovery after disturbance. The net recruitment of all studied meadows, including the undisturbed one, was negative, even though the buried meadow was close to zero. If environmental conditions will remain the same, all studied meadows are predicted to decline to extinction. Results thus suggest that the inlet relocation may alter the landscape distribution of C. nodosa meadows in Ria Formosa, but it was not the main cause of C. nodosa decline.

The seasonal plasticity of individual Zostera noltii architectural, reproductive and elemental content features, of plant epiphyte load and of meadow biomass–density relationships was investigated along a vertical intertidal gradient at Ria Formosa lagoon, southern Portugal. The vertical variability of the seagrass environment was evident in the sediment characteristics, which showed coarser grain size, less organic matter, lower N content and higher ammonium concentration in the low intertidal than in medium and high intertidal. A clear vertical differentiation in Z. noltii morphology was observed from longer and wider leaves, longer and wider internodes and shorter roots at low intertidal, to shorter and narrow leaves, shorter and narrower internodes and longer roots at high intertidal. The leaf size was negatively related to light availability and positively related to nutrient availability whereas the root size was negatively related to nutrient availability. The lower leaf N and P content found in low intertidal plants may reflect a dilution effect of the nutrients due to higher growth rates. Lower N content of low intertidal leaves supports previous findings that the nitrate reductase activity is lower in plants from this level. The higher epiphyte load observed in Z. noltii leaves of the low intertidal may be a consequence of the lower exposure period, but also of higher hydrodynamics that increase the availability of nutrients. No evidence of the influence of the intertidal level on the flowering shoot density was found. The cyclic temporal pattern of the biomass–density relationship was much wider at low and medium intertidal than at high intertidal. At low intertidal, the decline in shoot density during fall and winter was coincident with a biomass decrease and its increase in spring and summer coincided with the biomass increase. In medium and high intertidal, the biomass and density seasonal variations were decoupled. As a result, only at low intertidal there was a significant positive relationship between biomass and density. This suggests that Z. noltii population structure along the intertidal is regulated by different factors. Light is probably the most important factor regulating the population structure in the low intertidal, whereas desiccation is probably the main factor regulating the populations in upper intertidal. Zostera noltii showed a considerable plasticity at a physiological-, plant- and population-level along the intertidal zone, indicative of the species acclimation to the steep environmental gradient of this particular ecosystem.

The abiotic disturbance of urban wastewater discharge and its effects in the population structure, plant morphology, leaf nutrient content, epiphyte load and macroalgae abundance of Zostera noltii meadows were investigated in Ria Formosa coastal lagoon, southern Portugal using both univariate and multivariate analysis. Four sites were assessed, on a seasonal basis, along a gradient from a major Waste Water Treatment Works (WWTW) discharge to a main navigation channel. The wastewater discharge caused an evident environmental disturbance through the nutrient enrichment of the water and sediment, particularly of ammonium. Zostera noltii of the sites closest to the nutrient source showed higher leaf N content, clearly reflecting the nitrogen load. The anthropogenic nutrient enrichment resulted in higher biomass, and higher leaf and internode length, except for the meadow closest to the wastewater discharge (270 m). The high ammonium concentration (158–663 μM) in the water at this site resulted in the decrease of biomass, and both the leaf and internode length, suggesting a toxic effect on Z. noltii . The higher abundance of macroalgae and epiphytes found in the meadow closest to the nutrient source may also affect the species negatively. Shoot density was higher at the nutrient-undisturbed site. Two of the three abiotic processes revealed by Principal Component Analysis were clearly related to the WWTW discharge, a contrast between water column salinity and nutrient concentration and a sediment contrast between both porewater nutrients and temperature and redox potential. A multiple regression analysis showed that these abiotic processes had a significant effect on the biomass-density dynamics of meadows and on the overall size of Z. noltii plants, respectively. Results show that the wastewater discharge is an important source of environmental disturbance and nutrients availability in Ria Formosa lagoon affecting the population structure, morphology and N content of Z. noltii . This impact is spatially restricted to areas up to 600 m distant from the WWTW discharge, probably due to the high water renewal of the lagoon.

In order to assess how anthropogenic nutrient disturbance affects the populations of the seagrass Zostera noltii, the temporal variation of the stand biomass and shoot density expressed by the population-specific biomass–density relationships were studied along nutrient gradients associated with discharge from Waste Water Treatment Works, in two coastal systems of southern Portugal. Two sites were studied in Ria Formosa lagoon (Faro NW and Tavira) and one in the Arade estuary. Four stations were sampled along the nutrient gradient in each of two sites (Faro NW along 2 years, and Arade along 1 year) and two stations were sampled in Tavira. The Z. noltii population structure reflected the anthropogenic nutrient disturbance. The nutrient-disturbed stations showed significant correlations between biomass and density, whereas at nutrient-undisturbed stations the biomass–density data were uncorrelated. The Z. noltii population parameters derived from the temporal variation of the population structure, i.e. the slope of the biomass–density relationships, the coefficient of variation of biomass and the ratio of the maximum/minimum biomass increased with nutrient availability, whereas the intercept of the biomass–density relationships decreased with nutrient availability. These patterns resulted mostly from the higher variability of biomass at nutrient-disturbed stations as shoot density varied little among stations. The higher biomass variability may reflect both the beneficial effects (availability) and the detrimental effects (toxicity) of nutrients along the year. Very high concentrations of DIN (>400 μM) caused toxic effects on plants limiting the biomass development. The described relationships and patterns of variation may be used to assess the global nutrient disturbance level of areas within the coastal systems in southern Portugal. Validation of these patterns for other geographical areas and other seagrass species may provide a general valuable tool to assess the anthropogenic nutrient disturbance in coastal areas.

The effects of experimental burial and erosion on the seagrass Zostera noltii were assessed through in situ manipulation of the sediment level (− 2 cm, 0 cm, + 2 cm, + 4 cm, + 8 cm and + 16 cm). Shoot density, leaf and sheath length, internode length, C and N content and carbohydrates of leaves and rhizomes were examined 1, 2, 4 and 8 weeks after disturbance. Both burial and erosion resulted in the decrease of shoot density for all the sediment levels. The threshold for total shoot loss was between 4 cm and 8 cm of burial, particularly during the 2nd week. A laboratory experiment confirmed that shoots did not survive more than 2 weeks under complete burial. There was no evidence of induced flowering by burial or erosion. As well, no clear evidence was found of sediment level effects on leaf and sheath length. Longer rhizome internodes were observed as a response to both burial and erosion, suggesting a plant attempt to relocate the leaf-producing meristems closer to sediment surface or in search of new sediment avoiding the eroded area. The C content of leaves and rhizomes, as well as the non-structural carbohydrates (mainly the starch in rhizomes), decreased significantly along the experimental period, indicating the internal mobilization of carbon to meet the plant demands as a consequence of light deprivation. The significant decrease of N content in leaves, and its simultaneous increase in rhizomes, suggests the internal translocation of nitrogen from leaves to rhizomes. About 50% of the N lost by the leaves was recovered by the rhizomes. Our results indicated that Z. noltii has a high sensitivity to burial and erosion disturbance, which should be considered in the management of coastal activities.

Does civic participation, especially in the arts, increase democracy? This chapter extends this neo-Tocquevillian question in three ways. First, to capture broader political and economic transformations, we consider different types of participation; results change by separate participation arenas. Some are declining, but a dramatic finding is the rise of arts and culture. Second, to assess impacts of participation, we include multiple dimensions of democratic politics, including distinct norms of citizenship and their associated political repertoires. Third, by analyzing global International Social Survey Program and World Values Survey data, we identify dramatic subcultural differences: the Tocquevillian model is positive, negative, or zero in seven different subcultures and contexts that we explicate, from class politics and clientelism to Protestant and Orthodox Christian civilizational traditions.

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Selectively using Tocqueville, many social scientists suggest that civic participation increases democracy. We go beyond this neo-Tocquevillian model in three ways. First, to capture broader political and economic transformations, we consider different types of participation; results change if we analyze separate participation arenas. Some are declining, but a dramatic finding is the rise of arts and culture. Second, to assess impacts of participation, we study more dimensions of democrat ic politics, including distinct norms of citizenship and their associated political repertoires. Third, by analy zing global International S ocial Survey Programme and World Values Survey data, we identify dramatic subcultural differences: the Tocquevillian model is positive, negative, or zero in differen t subcultures and contexts that we explicate.

The aim of this study was to develop an ecological quality index based on the seagrass Zostera noltii (ZoNI) according to the WFD requirements. Eleven Z. noltii meadows of SW Iberian Peninsula under contrasting levels of anthropogenic disturbance were considered: 5 sites in Ria Formosa (Portugal), and 6 sites in Spain (Huelva and Cadiz). Environmental quality was assessed through nutrients of the water column and seagrass variables from different organization levels; those variables were analyzed using PCA (47% of explained variance on the first component) to calculate the ecological quality ratio (that was significantly correlated to the environmental variables, R(2)=0.51, p

The available information from experimental and descriptive studies on the effects of sediment burial and erosion on seagrasses was compiled to synthesize the information regarding the species-specific impacts and to relate them to plant characteristics. Burial thresholds (i.e. the burial levels causing 50% and 100% shoot mortality) and mortality-burial curves were estimated for the 15 seagrass species where the effects of experimental burial have been tested. All the species investigated reached 50% shoot mortality at burial levels ranging from 2 cm (Halophila ovalis) to 19.5 cm (Posidonia australis). P. australis was the most tolerant seagrass species to burial, while Thalassia testudinum was the most tolerant species to erosion. The relationships among plant size, growth, biomass and density with burial thresholds were examined. There were significant relationships between the burial thresholds and the shoot mass, the rhizome diameter, the aboveground biomass, the horizontal rhizome elongation and the leaf length of seagrass species. The leaf size and the rhizome diameter are the best predictors of the capacity of seagrasses to withstand burial. The burial thresholds estimated for seagrass species were in many cases in agreement with the burial impacts described by field observations (bioturbation), while in some cases was related to the species long-term colonization capacity (dune migration). Most human-induced impacts result in important changes of the sedimentary environment, with permanent negative effects on seagrass meadows (regression and complete destruction), whereas natural events, whether extreme (hurricane) or regular (dune migration), allow the recovery and/or adaptation of seagrasses to the burial/erosion sediment dynamics. The extent of the effects of burial and erosion on seagrasses is species-specific and strongly size-dependent. © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The timing and success of sexual reproduction of the seagrass Zostera noltii was investigated at the Ria Formosa lagoon, Portugal. Thirty plants were tagged and monitored individually through time to determine in situ the development time of each maturation stage, from the emergence of the flowers to the production of seeds. The overall process of flowering and fruiting lasted 47 ± 4 days, during which formation and maturation of the fruits was the most time-consuming stage (27 ± 2 days). Spathe success, i.e. the percentage of spathes that produced seeds, was 22 ± 4% while spathe mortality was 34 ± 6%. A considerable percentage of spathes (37 ± 7%) was lost through leaf detachment, but some of these may still add to the reproductive success of the species by contributing to the species recruitment within the source meadow or elsewhere. Meadow seed production (MSP) of Z. noltii was estimated to be 312 ± 66 seeds m −2 , whereas the potential seed production of the studied meadow was 2623 seeds m −2 . Under laboratory conditions, 70% of Z. noltii seeds germinated within 26 days, but only 10% reached the seedling stage due to the high mortality of germlings. Fertility, defined as the probability of a seed to originate a new plant, was estimated to be 14 × 10 −4 , which is higher than what is expected for most seagrasses.

Seagrass declines have been reported worldwide, mostly as a consequence of anthro- pogenic disturbance. In Ria Formosa lagoon, southern Portugal, the intertidal meadows of Zostera noltii are highly disturbed by clam harvesters. The most common technique used to collect the clams consists of digging and tilling the sediment with a modified knife with a large blade. Here we present both descriptive and experimental evidence of the negative effects of clam harvest on the Z. noltii populations of Ria Formosa. A comparison between disturbed and undisturbed meadows suggests that clam harvesting activities change the species population structure by significantly reducing shoot density and total biomass, particularly during August, when the harvest effort is higher. Exper- imental harvest revealed a short-term impact on shoot density, which rapidly recovered to control levels during the following month. An experimental manipulation of rhizome fragmentation revealed that plant survival is reduced only when fragmented rhizomes are left with 1 intact internode. Shoot production and rhizome elongation and production of fragmented rhizomes having 2 to 5 internodes were not significantly affected, even though growth and production were lower when only 2 intern- odes were left. Experimental shoot damage at different positions along the rhizome had a significant effect on plant survival, rhizome elongation, and production only when the apical shoot was removed. Our results show that clam harvest can adversely affect Z. noltii meadows of Ria Formosa while revealing a low modular integration that allows the species to rapidly recover from physical damage.