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Abstract The archaeological record offers insights into our evolutionary past by revealing ancient behaviour through stone and fossil remains. Percussive foraging is suggested to be particularly relevant for the emergence of tool-use in our lineage, yet early hominin percussive behaviours remain largely understudied compared to flaked technology. Stone tool-use of extant primates allows the simultaneous investigation of their artefacts and the associated behaviours. This is important for understanding the development of tool surface modification, and crucial for interpreting damage patterns in the archaeological record. Here, we compare the behaviour and the resulting material record across stone tool-using primates. We investigate the relationship of nut-cracking technique and stone tool modification across chimpanzees, capuchins, and long-tailed macaques by conducting standardized field experiments with comparable raw materials. We show that different techniques likely emerged in response to diverse nut hardness, leading to variation in foraging success across species. Our experiments further demonstrate a correlation between techniques and the intensity of visible percussive damage on the tools. Tools used with more precision and efficiency as demonstrated by macaques, show fewer use wear traces. This suggests that some percussive techniques may be less readily identified in the archaeological record.

Abstract Necrophilic behavior (attempted copulation with corpses) has been scarcely reported in non-human primates, especially in the wild. Here is the first case of necrophilic behavior observed in wild stump-tailed macaques in Thailand. Six groups of total N > 460 individuals have been identified and habituated. The corpse of an adult female was found and directly observed for 2 days and by camera trap for 3 days. The cause of death could not be identified, but no prominent physical injury was detected. Within 3 days of the observation, three different males attempted copulation with the corpse. Noteworthy for this observation was that not only males in the group of the dead female but also males from different groups interacted with the corpse. Taken together, these observations suggest that some cues emanating from the corpse coupled with a nonresistant/passive orientation may have triggered these responses in the males. Given that necrophiliac responses have been scarcely reported in non-human primates, our findings provide new insight into these behaviors and to comparative thanatology in general.

Abstract Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (Mtbc), which develops from asymptomatic latent TB to active stages. The microbiome was purposed as a potential factor affecting TB pathogenesis, but the study was limited. The present study explored the association between gut-pharyngeal microbiome and TB stages in cynomolgus macaques using the full-length 16S rDNA amplicon sequencing based on Oxford Nanopore Technologies. The total of 71 macaques was divided into TB (−) control, TB (+) latent and TB (+) active groups. The differential abundance analysis showed that Haemophilus hemolyticus was decreased, while Prevotella species were increased in the pharyngeal microbiome of TB (+) macaques. In addition, Eubacterium coprostanoligenes in the gut was enriched in TB (+) macaques. Alteration of these bacteria might affect immune regulation and TB severity, but details of mechanisms should be further explored and validated. In summary, microbiota may be associated with host immune regulation and affect TB progression. The findings suggested the potential mechanisms of host-microbes interaction, which may improve the understanding of the role of microbiota and help develop therapeutics for TB in the future.

Abstract The detection and management of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) infection, the causative agent of tuberculosis (TB), in macaques, including cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis), are of significant concern in research and regions where macaques coexist with humans or other animals. This study explored the utility of the Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra assay, a widely adopted molecular diagnostic tool to diagnose tuberculosis (TB) in humans, to detect DNA from the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in clinical samples obtained from cynomolgus macaques. This investigation involved a comprehensive comparative analysis, integrating established conventional diagnostic methodologies, assessing oropharyngeal-tracheal wash (PW) and buccal swab (BS) specimen types, and follow-up assessments at 3-month, 6-month, and 12-month intervals. Our results demonstrated that the Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra assay was able to detect MTBC in 12 of 316 clinical samples obtained from cynomolgus macaques, presenting a potential advantage over bacterial culture and chest radiographs. The Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra assay exhibited exceptional sensitivity (100%) at the animal level, successfully detecting all macaques positive for M. tuberculosis as confirmed by traditional culture methods. The use of PW samples revealed that 5 positive samples from 99 (5.1%) were recommended for testing, compared to 0 samples from 99 buccal swab (BS) samples (0.0%). In particular, the definitive diagnosis of TB was confirmed in three deceased macaques by MTB culture, which detected the presence of the bacterium in tissue autopsy. Our findings demonstrate that the implementation of the Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra assay, along with prompt isolation measures, effectively reduced active TB cases among cynomolgus macaques over a 12-month period. These findings highlight the advance of the Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra assay in TB diagnosis and its crucial role in preventing potential outbreaks in cynomolgus macaques. With its rapidity, high sensitivity, and specificity, the Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra assay can be highly suitable for use in reference laboratories to confirm TB disease and effectively interrupt TB transmission.

Abstract Conservation funding is currently limited; cost‐effective conservation solutions are essential. We suggest that the thousands of field stations worldwide can play key roles at the frontline of biodiversity conservation and have high intrinsic value. We assessed field stations’ conservation return on investment and explored the impact of COVID‐19. We surveyed leaders of field stations across tropical regions that host primate research; 157 field stations in 56 countries responded. Respondents reported improved habitat quality and reduced hunting rates at over 80% of field stations and lower operational costs per km2 than protected areas, yet half of those surveyed have less funding now than in 2019. Spatial analyses support field station presence as reducing deforestation. These “earth observatories” provide a high return on investment; we advocate for increased support of field station programs and for governments to support their vital conservation efforts by investing accordingly.

Abstract The environment has an important effect on the gut microbiota—an essential part of the host’s health—and is strongly influenced by the dietary pattern of the host as these together shape the composition and functionality of the gut microbiota in humans and other animals. This study compared the gut microbiota of Macaca fascicularis fascicularis and M. f. aurea in mangrove and island populations using 16S rRNA gene sequencing on a nanopore platform to investigate the effect of the environment and/or diet. The results revealed that the M. f. fascicularis populations that received anthropogenic food exhibited a higher richness and evenness of gut microbiota than the M. f. aurea populations in different habitats. Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes were the two most abundant bacterial phyla in the gut microbiota of both these subspecies; however, the relative abundance of these phyla was significantly higher in M. f. aurea than in M. f. fascicularis. This variation in the gut microbiota between the two subspecies in different habitats mostly resulted from the differences in their diets. Moreover, the specific adaptation of M. f. aurea to different environments with a different food availability had a significant effect on their microbial composition.

Abstract Inadequate calcium intake during childhood and adolescence is detrimental to bone metabolism. Here, we postulated that calcium supplement prepared from tuna bone with tuna head oil should benefit for skeletal development than CaCO3. Forty female 4-week-old rats were divided into calcium-replete diet (0.55% w/w, S1, n = 8) and low-calcium groups (0.15% w/w for 2 weeks; L; n = 32). Then L were subdivided into 4 groups (8/group), i.e., remained on L, L + tuna bone (S2), S2 + tuna head oil + 25(OH)D3 and S2 + 25(OH)D3. Bone specimens were collected at week 9. We found that 2 weeks on low calcium diet led to low bone mineral density (BMD), reduced mineral content, and impaired mechanical properties in young growing rats. Intestinal fractional calcium absorption also increased, presumably resulting from higher plasma 1,25(OH)2D3 (1.712 ± 0.158 in L vs. 1.214 ± 0.105 nM in S1, P

Abstract The wild-born long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) were recently recruited and used as breeders for the National Primate Research Center of Thailand, Chulalongkorn University (NPRCT-CU), and changes in their in-depth gut microbiota profiles were investigated. The Oxford Nanopore Technology (ONT) was used to explore full-length 16S rDNA sequences of gut microbiota in animals once captured in their natural habitat and 1-year following translocation and housing in a hygienic environment at NPRCT-CU. Our findings show that the gut microbiota of macaques after 1 year of hygienic housing and programmed diets feeding was altered and reshaped. The prevalent gut bacteria such as Prevotella copri and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii were enriched after translocation, causing the lower alpha diversity. The correlation analysis revealed that Prevotella copri, Phascolarctobacterium succinatutens, and Prevotella stercorea, showed a positive correlation with each other. Significantly enriched pathways in the macaques after translocation included biosynthesis of essential amino acids, fatty acids, polyamine and butanoate. The effects of microbiota change could help macaques to harvest the energy from programmed diets and adapt their gut metabolism. The novel probiotics and microbiota engineering approach could be further developed based on the current findings and should be helpful for captive animal health care management.

We identified tuberculosis in 1,836 macaques from 6 wild rhesus (Macaca mulatta), 23 common long-tailed (M. fascicularis fascicularis), and 6 Burmese long-tailed (M. fascicularis aurea) macaque populations in Thailand. We captured, anesthetized, and collected throat, buccal, and rectal swab specimens from the macaques. We screened swabs for Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) using insertion sequence 6110–specific nested PCR. We found higher MTBC prevalence at both population and individual levels among M. mulatta than M. fascicularis fascicularis macaques; all 3 M. fascicularis aurea macaque populations were positive for tuberculosis. We found that throat swab specimens provided the best sample medium for detecting MTBC. Our results showed no difference in MTBC prevalence between male and female animals, but a higher percentage of adults were infected than subadults and juveniles. Although we detected no association between frequency of human–macaque interaction and MTBC prevalence, bidirectional zoonotic transmission should be considered a possible public health concern.

Herpes B virus (BV) is a zoonotic virus which can be transmitted from macaques to humans, which is often associated with high mortality rates. Because macaques often exhibit asymptomatic infections, individuals who come into contact with these animals face unexpected risks of BV infections. A serological test is widely performed to investigate BV infections. However, the assay’s sensitivity and specificity appeared to be inadequate, and it does not necessarily indicate ongoing viral shedding. Here, we developed LAMP and qPCR assays aiming to detect BVs with a high sensitivity and specificity in various macaque species and validated them using oral swab samples collected from 97 wild cynomolgus macaques living in Thailand. Our LAMP and qPCR assays detected more than 50 and 10 copies of the target sequences per reaction, respectively. The LAMP assay could detect BV within 25 min, indicating its advantages for the rapid detection of BV. Collectively, our findings indicated that both assays developed in this study exhibit advantages and usefulness for BV surveillance and the diagnosis of BV infections in macaques. Furthermore, for the first time, we determined the partial genome sequences of BVs detected in cynomolgus macaques in Thailand. Phylogenetic analysis revealed the species-specific evolution of BV within macaques.

Surveillance of infectious diseases in free-ranging or wild animals has been widely conducted in many habitat-range countries after the COVID-19 episode. Thailand is located in the center of the distribution range of long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis; Mf) where the animals have both frequent human contact and a high prevalence of human tuberculosis. For the large-scale detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) using IS6110-nested PCR in free-ranging Mf, non-invasive sampling was developed using oral (via rope bait) and fecal (direct swabs of fresh feces) specimen collection. Firstly, the MTBC-IS6110-nested PCR was validated in non-invasively collected specimens, in terms of its specificity and sensitivity, and then compared with those of the invasively collected oral and rectal swabs in 24 captive MTBC-suspected Mf. After validation, these methods were applied to survey for the prevalence of shed MTBC (MTBCS) in four previously reported MTBC-infected populations. A total of 173 baited rope specimens and 204 freshly defecated excretions were collected. The limit of detection of the IS6110-nested PCR technique was 10 fg/μL and the 181-bp PCR amplicon showed 100% sequence similarity with the MTB H37Rv genome sequence. Comparing the MTBCS detection between the invasive and non-invasive collected specimens in captive suspected Mf revealed a significant correlation between the two types of oral specimens (oral swabs and baited ropes; n = 24, r2 = 1, p-value < 0.001), but fresh fecal swabs showed higher MTBCS frequencies than the rectal swabs. Moreover, the proportion of MTBCS-positive free-ranging Mf were significantly higher in the fresh fecal swabs (8.82%; 95% CI; 4.9-12.7%) than in the baited ropes (5.20%; 95% CI; 1.9-8.5%). This result indicates that oral sampling via baited ropes and fecal sampling via defecated excretion swabs can serve as ancillary specimens for MTBCS detection in free-ranging non-human primates.

Since the outbreak of the coronavirus disease (COVID) pandemic in 2019, the development of effective vaccines to combat the infection has been accelerated. With the recent emergence of highly transmissible severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants of concern (VOC), there are concerns regarding the immune escape from vaccine-induced immunity. Hence an effective vaccine against VOC with a potent immune response is required. Our previous study confirmed that the two doses of the plant-produced receptor-binding domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2 fused with the Fc region of human IgG1, namely Baiya SARS-CoV-2 Vax 1, showed high immunogenicity in mice and monkeys. Here, we aimed to evaluate the immunogenicity of a three-dose intramuscular injection of Baiya SARS-CoV-2 Vax 1 on days 0, 21, and 133 in cynomolgus monkeys. At 14 days after immunization, blood samples were collected to determine RBD-specific antibody titer, neutralizing antibody, and pseudovirus neutralizing antibody titers. Immunized monkeys developed significantly high levels of antigen-specific antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 compared to the control group. Interestingly, the sera collected from immunized monkeys also showed a neutralizing antibody response against the SARS-CoV-2 VOCs; Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron. These findings demonstrate that a three-dose regimen of Baiya SARS-CoV-2 Vax 1 vaccine elicits neutralizing immune response against SARS-CoV-2 variants.

Abstract Long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis), distributed in Southeast Asia, are generally used in biomedical research. At present, the expansion of human communities overlapping of macaques’ natural habitat causes human-macaque conflicts. To mitigate this problem in Thailand, the National Primate Research Center of Thailand, Chulalongkorn University (NPRCT-CU), was granted the permit to catch the surplus wild-born macaques and transfer them to the center. Based on the fact that the diets provided and the captive environments were different, their oral-gut microbiota should be altered. Thus, we investigated and compared the oral and fecal microbiome between wild-born macaques that lived in the natural habitats and those transferred to and reared in the NPRCT-CU for 1 year. The results from 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing showed that the captive macaques had distinct oral-gut microbiota profiles and lower bacterial richness compared to those in wild macaques. The gut of wild macaques was dominated by Firmicutes which is probably associated with lipid absorption and storage. These results implicated the effects of captivity conditions on the microbiome that might contribute to crucial metabolic functions. Our study should be applied to the animal health care program, with respect to microbial functions, for non-human primates.

Of all the non-human primate species studied by researchers, the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) is likely the most widely used across biological disciplines. Rhesus macaques have thrived during the Anthropocene and now have the largest natural range of any non-human primate. They are highly social, exhibit marked genetic diversity, and display remarkable niche flexibility (which allows them to live in a range of habitats and survive on a variety of diets). These characteristics mean that rhesus macaques are well-suited for understanding the links between sociality, health and fitness, and also for investigating intra-specific variation, adaptation and other topics in evolutionary ecology.

Male coalition-like formation, recently found in stump-tailed macaques (Macaca arctoides), occurs when several top-ranking males collaboratively guard females to prevent mating with other rival males and actively share secured mating opportunities with their allies. We lack a comprehensive understanding of the proximate mechanisms underlying such male coalitions, e.g., the effect of genetic relatedness. Such cooperative partner choice among males is particularly interesting in animals, such as M. arctoides, that live in matrilineal (female philopatry/male dispersal) society. Theoretically, in such a social system, females, and not males, are often related to each other by kinship. Thus, the occurrence of cooperative behavior between related females are generally common, but it would be rare between unrelated/non-kin males in such matrilineal society. Herein, for the first time, we report detailed copulatory behaviors, including mating and reproductive success, in relation to male coalition-like formation in free-ranging M. arctoides following direct behavioral observation and genetic analysis. We found that coalition-forming male–male alliances often occur among both individuals that are highly related and those that are less related. We identified two groups with different mating strategies, i.e., single-male monopoly and coalition-male monopoly groups. In both groups, nearly 80% of copulations were monopolized by a single male or by coalition males. However, the single-male monopoly strategy allows opportunistic/sneaky copulations by other males with a relatively high probability. Thus, the degree of reproductive success did not reflect mating success. In contrast, the males employing a coalition strategy successfully shared their mating and reproductive success, particularly in the largest group. Compared with single-male monopolized groups, the coalition-male monopoly groups copulated with a considerably more number of females, suggesting that coalition males can effectively guard against opportunistic/sneaky copulation by rival males. We also found that coalition-forming male–male alliances often occur regardless of the degree of kinship/relatedness, indicating the complexity and flexibility inherent in the male social bond of M. arctoides.

Gibbons (Family Hylobatidae) are a suitable model for exploring hybridization in pair-living primates as several species form hybrid zones. In Khao Yai National Park, Thailand, white-handed gibbons (Hylobates lar) and pileated gibbons (Hylobates pileatus) are distributed parapatrically and hybridize in a narrow zone. Their phenotypic characteristics suggest limited inter-species gene flow, although this has never been assessed. To uncover the history and degree of gene flow between the two species, we studied the genetic structure of gibbons in the hybrid zone by analyzing fecal DNA samples, phenotypic characteristics, vocalizations and individuals' social status. We determined eight autosomal single nucleotide variant (SNV) loci, and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y-chromosomal haplotypes of 72 gibbons. We compared these markers with reference types of wild pureblood white-handed gibbons (n = 12) in Kaeng Krachan National Park and pureblood pileated gibbons (n = 4) in Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary. Autosomal genotypic analyses confirmed the various levels of mixed ancestry for several adult gibbons with or without atypical phenotypic traits in Khao Yai National Park. In some other adult gibbons, the mixed ancestry was not detected in either autosomal SNVs or their phenotypic traits but the mtDNA. Both male and female adult hybrids formed reproductive units mainly with a phenotypic pureblood partner and many of them produced offspring. Taken together, our results suggest that once hybridization occurs, white-handed-pileated-gibbon hybrids can reproduce with either parental species and that the backcrossing and thus introgression may occur in successive generations, with no drastic changes in phenotypic appearance.

The emergence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has affected global public health and economy. Despite the substantial efforts, only few vaccines are currently approved and some are in the different stages of clinical trials. As the disease rapidly spreads, an affordable and effective vaccine is urgently needed. In this study, we investigated the immunogenicity of plant-produced receptor-binding domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2 in order to use as a subunit vaccine. In this regard, RBD of SARS-CoV-2 was fused with Fc fragment of human IgG1 and transiently expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana by agroinfiltration. The plant-produced RBD-Fc fusion protein was purified from the crude extract by using protein A affinity column chromatography. Two intramuscular administration of plant-produced RBD-Fc protein formulated with alum as an adjuvant have elicited high neutralization titers in immunized mice and cynomolgus monkeys. Further it has induced a mixed Th1/Th2 immune responses and vaccine-specific T-lymphocyte responses which was confirmed by interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) enzyme-linked immunospot assay. Altogether, our results demonstrated that the plant-produced SARS-CoV-2 RBD has the potential to be used as an effective vaccine candidate against SARS-CoV-2. To our knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating the immunogenicity of plant-produced SARS-CoV-2 RBD protein in mice and non-human primates.

Centromeric satellite DNA (cen-satDNA) consists of highly divergent repeat monomers, each approximately 171 base pairs in length. Here, we investigated the genetic diversity in the centromeric region of two primate species: long-tailed (Macaca fascicularis) and rhesus (Macaca mulatta) macaques. Fluorescence in situ hybridization and bioinformatic analysis showed the chromosome-specific organization and dynamic nature of cen-satDNAsequences, and their substantial diversity, with distinct subfamilies across macaque populations, suggesting increased turnovers. Comparative genomics identified high level polymorphisms spanning a 120 bp deletion region and a remarkable interspecific variability in cen-satDNA size and structure. Population structure analysis detected admixture patterns within populations, indicating their high divergence and rapid evolution. However, differences in cen-satDNA profiles appear to not be involved in hybrid incompatibility between the two species. Our study provides a genomic landscape of centromeric repeats in wild macaques and opens new avenues for exploring their impact on the adaptive evolution and speciation of primates.

White-handed gibbons produce loud and acoustically complex songs when interacting with their neighbours or when encountering predators. In both contexts, songs are assembled from a small number of units although their composition differs in context-specific ways. Here, we investigated whether wild gibbons could infer the ‘meaning’ when hearing exemplars recorded in both contexts (i.e. ‘duet songs’ vs. ‘predator songs’). We carried out a playback experiment by which we simulated the presence of a neighbouring group producing either its duet or a predator song in order to compare subjects’ vocal and locomotor responses. When hearing a recording of a duet song, subjects reliably responded with their own duet song, which sometimes elicited further duet songs in adjacent groups. When hearing a recording of a predator song, however, subjects typically remained silent, apart from one of six groups which replied with its own predator song. Moreover, in two of six trials, playbacks of predator songs elicited predator song replies in non-adjacent groups. Finally, all groups showed strong anti-predator behaviour to predator songs but never to duet songs. We concluded that white-handed gibbons discriminated between the two song types and were able to infer meaning from them. We discuss the implications of these findings in light of the current debate on the evolutionary origins of syntax.

Abstract Background Pueraria candollei var. mirifica is a medicinal plant that is promoted as a “Champion Product” by the Government of Thailand. This plant has been reported to relieve postmenopausal symptoms, prevent and reverse bone loss, inhibit the growth of breast cancer, and alleviate cardiovascular diseases in preclinical and clinical studies. However, there is little information on the oral bioavailability and tissue distribution of puerarin with respect to its pharmacodynamic activities. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetics of puerarin, including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination, in rats. Moreover, this is the first study to examine the tissue distribution of puerarin in the hippocampus, femur, tibia, and mammary gland. Methods Adult female rats were administered puerarin at 1 mg/kg intravenously or 5 and 10 mg/kg orally. Blood, tissue, urine, and feces were collected and analyzed by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Results Puerarin reached a maximum concentration in the blood of 140–230 μg/L within 1 h of oral dosing, and had an absolute oral bioavailability of approximately 7%. Following intravenous administration, puerarin was widely distributed in several tissues, including the hippocampus, heart, lung, stomach, liver, mammary gland, kidney, spleen, femur, and tibia. Approximately 50% of the intravenous dose was excreted as glucuronide metabolites via the urinary route. Conclusions The absolute oral bioavailability of puerarin was approximately 7% at doses of 5 and 10 mg/kg. Puerarin was widely distributed to several organs related to the diseases of aging, including the hippocampus, femur, tibia, and mammary gland. Glucuronides were the major metabolites of puerarin and were mainly excreted in the urine. These results are useful for the development of puerarin and Pueraria candollei var. mirifica as phytopharmaceutical products.

Stone tools in the prehistoric record are the most abundant source of evidence for understanding early hominin technological and cultural variation. The field of primate archaeology is well placed to improve our scientific knowledge by using the tool behaviours of living primates as models to test hypotheses related to the adoption of tools by early stone-age hominins. Previously we have shown that diversity in stone tool behaviour between neighbouring groups of long-tailed macaques (Macaca-fascicularis) could be explained by ecological and environmental circumstances (Luncz et al., 2017b). Here however, we report archaeological evidence, which shows that the selection and reuse of tools cannot entirely be explained by ecological diversity. These results suggest that tool-use may develop differently within species of old-world monkeys, and that the evidence of material culture can differ within the same timeframe at local geographic scales and in spite of shared environmental and ecological settings.

Intestinal parasitic infections can have an impact on health and growth of wildlife. The current study aims were to determine the prevalence of intestinal parasites and to molecular characterize Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. in captive gibbons at Krabokkoo Wildlife Breeding Center, Thailand. Fifty-five gibbons, 2 agile- (Hylobates agilis), 38 lar- (Hylobates lar) and 15 pileated gibbons (Hylobates pileatus) were included in this study. Fecal samples were collected individually at Krabokkoo Wildlife Breeding Center, Chachoengsao province, eastern Thailand, in November 2013. Intestinal parasitic infections were examined by zinc sulfate centrifugation flotation and by a commercially available immunofluorescent assay (IFA) for detection of G. duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp.. Polymerase chain reaction targeting the Giardia glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh), beta- giardin (bg), triose phosphate isomerase (tpi) genes, and the Cryptosporidium small subunit-rRNA and heat-shock protein (hsp70) following by DNA sequencing were performed on the IFA positive samples. The overall prevalence of intestinal parasitic infection in gibbons at Krabokkoo Wildlife Breeding Center was 12.7% (95%CI: 5.3–24.5), Strongyloides spp. eggs or larvae were present in all positive samples. Co-infections with G. duodenalis were detected in 1.8% (95%CI: 0.1–9.7) of the samples. Based on the sequencing results of the three genes, the IFA Giardia positive isolate typed as the zoonotic genotype B. Since the data reveals the occurrence of zoonotic Giardia genotype, good hygiene management is suggested to prevent the transmission of this pathogen from gibbon to human, and vice versa.

A substantial portion of the primate genome is composed of non-coding regions, so-called “dark matter”, which includes an abundance of tandemly repeated sequences called satellite DNA. Collectively known as the satellitome, this genomic component offers exciting evolutionary insights into aspects of primate genome biology that raise new questions and challenge existing paradigms. A complete human reference genome was recently reported with telomere-to-telomere human X chromosome assembly that resolved hundreds of dark regions, encompassing a 3.1 Mb centromeric satellite array that had not been identified previously. With the recent exponential increase in the availability of primate genomes, and the development of modern genomic and bioinformatics tools, extensive growth in our knowledge concerning the structure, function, and evolution of satellite elements is expected. The current state of knowledge on this topic is summarized, highlighting various types of primate-specific satellite repeats to compare their proportions across diverse lineages. Inter- and intraspecific variation of satellite repeats in the primate genome are reviewed. The functional significance of these sequences is discussed by describing how the transcriptional activity of satellite repeats can affect gene expression during different cellular processes. Sex-linked satellites are outlined, together with their respective genomic organization. Mechanisms are proposed whereby satellite repeats might have emerged as novel sequences during different evolutionary phases. Finally, the main challenges that hinder the detection of satellite DNA are outlined and an overview of the latest methodologies to address technological limitations is presented.

Tool use has allowed humans to become one of the most successful species. However, tool-assisted foraging has also pushed many of our prey species to extinction or endangerment, a technology-driven process thought to be uniquely human. Here, we demonstrate that tool-assisted foraging on shellfish by long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park, Thailand, reduces prey size and prey abundance, with more pronounced effects where the macaque population size is larger. We compared availability, sizes and maturation stages of shellfish between two adjacent islands inhabited by different-sized macaque populations and demonstrate potential effects on the prey reproductive biology. We provide evidence that once technological macaques reach a large enough group size, they enter a feedback loop – driving shellfish prey size down with attendant changes in the tool sizes used by the monkeys. If this pattern continues, prey populations could be reduced to a point where tool-assisted foraging is no longer beneficial to the macaques, which in return may lessen or extinguish the remarkable foraging technology employed by these primates.

Cynomolgus macaques are common across South East Asian countries including Thailand. The National Primate Research Center of Thailand, Chulalongkorn University (NPRCT-CU) captures wild-borne cynomolgus macaque for research use. Limited information is available on the enteric viruses and possible zoonotic infections into or from cynomolgus macaques. We characterized and compare the fecal virome of two populations; healthy wild-originated captive cynomolgus macaques (n = 43) reared in NPRCT-CU and healthy wild cynomolgus macaques (n = 35). Over 90% of recognized viral sequence reads amplified from feces were from bacterial viruses. Viruses from seven families of mammalian viruses were also detected (Parvoviridae, Anelloviridae, Picornaviridae, Adenoviridae, Papillomaviridae, Herpesviridae, and Caliciviridae). The genomes of a member of a new picornavirus genus we named Mafapivirus, a primate chapparvovirus, and a circular Rep-encoding single-strand (CRESS) DNA virus were also characterized. Higher abundance of CRESS DNA viruses of unknown tropism and invertebrate-tropic ambidensovirus were detected in wild versus captive macaques likely reflecting dietary differences. Short term rearing in captivity did not have a pronounced effect on the diversity of mammalian viruses of wild cynomolgus macaques. This study is the first report of the fecal virome of cynomolgus macaques, non-human primates frequently used in biomedical research and vaccination studies.

We explored variation in patterns of percussive stone-tool use on coastal foods by Burmese long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis aurea) from two islands in Laem Son National Park, Ranong, Thailand. We catalogued variation into three hammering classes and 17 action patterns, after examining 638 tool-use bouts across 90 individuals. Hammering class was based on the stone surface used for striking food, being face, point, and edge hammering. Action patterns were discriminated by tool material, hand use, posture, and striking motion. Hammering class was analyzed for associations with material and behavioural elements of tool use. Action patterns were not, owing to insufficient instances of most patterns. We collected 3077 scan samples from 109 macaques on Piak Nam Yai Island's coasts, to determine the proportion of individuals using each hammering class and action pattern. Point hammering was significantly more associated with sessile foods, smaller tools, faster striking rates, smoother recoil, unimanual use, and more varied striking direction, than were face and edge hammering, while both point and edge hammering were significantly more associated with precision gripping than face hammering. Edge hammering also showed distinct differences depending on whether such hammering was applied to sessile or unattached foods, resembling point hammering for sessile foods and face hammering for unattached foods. Point hammering and sessile edge hammering compared to prior descriptions of axe hammering, while face and unattached edge hammering compared to pound hammering. Analysis of scans showed that 80% of individuals used tools, each employing one to four different action patterns. The most common patterns were unimanual point hammering (58%), symmetrical-bimanual face hammering (47%) and unimanual face hammering (37%). Unimanual edge hammering was relatively frequent (13%), compared to the other thirteen rare action patterns (

To investigate the effect of Pueraria mirifica (P. mirifica) containing phytoestrogens on reproductive systems, both sexes of rats were gonadectomized and treated orally with 0, 10, 100, and 1,000 mg/kg BW per day of P. mirifica suspended in water (abbreviated as P-0, P-10, P-100, and P-1000), respectively. The treatment schedule was separated into 3 periods: pre-treatment, treatment, and post-treatment. The duration for each period was 14 days. Blood samples were taken once a week. Serum LH and FSH levels were significantly increased within 1 week after gonadectomy; and there were no changes after administration of P-0, P-10, and P-100. However, the increase of LH levels in both sexes and FSH levels in females were attenuated within 1 week after P-1,000 treatment. The attenuation of LH levels in males was smaller than that of females. The decrease of gonadotropin levels was recovered within 1 week in males and 2 weeks in females, respectively, during the post-treatment period. The increase of uterine weight and vaginal cornification were observed in female rats treated with P-100 and P-1,000, whereas only the increase of epididymis weight was found in male rats treated with P-1,000. From this study, it can be concluded that P. mirifica can influence the reproductive functions in both sexes of rats, but the response in females is greater than in males. Keywords:: Pueraria mirifica, phytoestrogen, LH, FSH, vaginal cytology

This study investigated the estrogenic effect of Pueraria mirifica (P. mirifica) on menstrual cycle length and hormone-related ovarian function. Nine normal cyclic monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) were separated into 3 groups; each group was force fed with a single dose of 10, 100, and 1,000 mg of P. mirifica. The experimental schedule was separated into the pre-treatment and post-treatment periods. Blood samples were collected on days 3, 9 – 14, 19, 24, 29, and every 10 days until the next menstruation for one and two menstrual cycles during two consecutive periods and assayed for serum levels of gonadotropins and ovarian hormones. The result showed a significant increase in lengths of the follicular phase and total menstrual cycle in monkeys treated with 1,000 mg of P. mirifica, but no change in menstrual cycle length in monkeys treated with 10 and 100 mg of P. mirifica. Serum levels of follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, estradiol, progesterone, or immunoreactive-inhibin did not change during the first and second menstrual cycles of the post-treatment period for all monkey groups. Our findings demonstrate that although changes in hormonal levels could not be observed in this study, a single dose of 1,000 mg of P. mirifica can disturb ovarian function and menstrual cycle in monkeys. Keywords:: Pueraria mirifica, phytoestrogen, monkey, reproductive hormone, menstrual cycle