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The basal forebrain (BF) comprises morphologically and functionally heterogeneous cell populations, including cholinergic and non-cholinergic corticopetal neurons that are implicated in sleep-wake modulation, learning, memory and attention. Several studies suggest that glutamate may be among inputs affecting cholinergic corticopetal neurons but such inputs have not been demonstrated unequivocally. We examined glutamatergic axon terminals in the sublenticular substantia innominata in rats using double-immunolabeling for vesicular glutamate transporters (Vglut1 and Vglut2) and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) at the electron microscopic level. In a total surface area of 30,000 microm(2), we classified the pre- and postsynaptic elements of 813 synaptic boutons. Vglut1 and Vglut2 boutons synapsed with cholinergic dendrites, and occasionally Vglut2 axon terminals also synapsed with cholinergic cell bodies. Vglut1 terminals formed synapses with unlabeled dendrites and spines with equal frequency, while Vglut2 boutons were mainly in synaptic contact with unlabeled dendritic shafts and occasionally with unlabeled spines. In general, Vglut1 boutons contacted more distal dendritic compartments than Vglut2 boutons. About 21% of all synaptic boutons (n=347) detected in tissue that was stained for Vglut1 and ChAT were positive for Vglut1, and 14% of the Vglut1 synapses were made on cholinergic profiles. From separate cases stained for Vglut2 and ChAT, 35% of all synaptic boutons (n=466) were positive for Vglut2, and 23% of the Vglut2 synapses were made on cholinergic profiles. On average, Vglut1 boutons were significantly smaller than Vglut2 synaptic boutons. The Vglut2 boutons that synapsed cholinergic profiles tended to be larger than the Vglut2 boutons that contacted unlabeled, non-cholinergic postsynaptic profiles. The presence of two different subtypes of Vgluts, the size differences of the Vglut synaptic boutons, and their preference for different postsynaptic targets suggest that the action of glutamate on BF neurons is complex and may arise from multiple afferent sources.

Cholinergic basal forebrain neurons confined within the intrinsic connections of the extended amygdala in the caudal sublenticular region and anterior amygdaloid area (cSLR/AAA) differ from other basal forebrain cholinergic neurons in several morphological and neurochemical respects. These cSLR/AAA cholinergic neurons have been subjected to additional investigations described in this report. First, fibers traced anterogradely following injections of Phaseolus vulgaris-leucoagglutinin in the central amygdaloid nucleus were shown to contact cSLR/AAA cholinergic neurons and dendrites. Second, these neurons were shown to be contacted by numerous GABAergic boutons with symmetric synaptic specializations. Third, the numbers of synaptic densities of morphologically characterized symmetric contacts on the somata and proximal dendrites of cSLR/AAA cholinergic neurons were shown to significantly exceed those of extra-cSLR/AAA cholinergic neurons. Fourth, fine structural features distinguishing cSLR/AAA cholinergic neurons from other basal forebrain cholinergic neurons were revealed. Specifically, cSLR/AAA cholinergic neurons have less abundant cytoplasm and a less well-organized system of rough endoplasmic reticulum than their counterparts in other parts of the basal forebrain. Thus, morphologically and neurochemically distinct cSLR/AAA cholinergic neurons exhibit robust proximal inhibitory inputs, of which a significant number originate in the extended amygdala, while cholinergic neurons outside this region lack a substrate for strong proximal inhibitory input. The implications of these findings for interaction of fear, anxiety, and attention are considered.

Meynert's basal nucleus is innervated by calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)-immunoreactive axons synapsing with cholinergic principal cells. Origin of CGRP-immunopositive axons was studied in the albino rat. Since beaded axons containing the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) are also present in the basal nucleus, the microstructural arrangement raises the question whether or not an interaction between CGRP and nAChR exists like in the neuromuscular junction. We found that electrolytic lesion of the parabrachial nucleus results in degeneration of CGRP-immunoreactive axons in the ipsilateral nucleus basalis and induces shrinkage of principal cholinergic neurons while the contralateral nucleus basalis remains intact. Electrolytic lesions in the thalamus, caudate-putamen, and hippocampus did not induce alterations in Meynert's basal nucleus. Disappearance of CGRP after lesions of the parabrachial nucleus does not impair presynaptic nAChR in the basal nucleus, suggesting that, unlike in the neuromuscular junction, CGRP is not involved in the maintenance of nAChR in the basal forebrain. It is concluded that the parabrachial nucleus is involved in the activation of the nucleus basalis-prefrontal cortex system, essential in gnostic and mnemonic functions., (Copyright 1999 Academic Press.)

An electron microscopic analysis of the nucleus basalis in the macaque monkey was carried out following the immunohistochemical labeling of choline acetyltransferase, either by itself or in conjunction with glutamate decarboxylase or tyrosine hydroxylase. Cholinergic axon varicosities were frequently encountered, and formed large, usually asymmetric, synapses on both choline acetyltransferase-immunopositive and -immunonegative dendrites of nucleus basalis neurons. Catecholaminergic (tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive) axon varicosities formed synapses which in most cases were classified as asymmetric, and glutamate decarboxylase-immunoreactive (GABAergic) axons formed clearly symmetric synapses, each on to choline acetyltransferase-immunopositive or -immunonegative dendrites. These findings indicate that cholinergic cells in the nucleus basalis of the monkey, also known as Ch4 neurons, receive numerous synaptic inputs from cholinergic, catecholaminergic and GABAergic axons.

The barn owl's head grows after hatching, causing interaural distances to more than double in the first 3 weeks posthatch. These changes expose the bird to a constantly increasing range of interaural time cues. We have used Golgi and ultrastructural techniques to analyze the development of the connections and cell types of the nucleus magnocellularis (NM) and the nucleus laminaris (NL) with reference to the growth of the head. The time coding circuit is formed but immature at the time of hatching. In the month posthatch, the auditory nerve projection to the NM matures, and appears adult-like by posthatch day (P)21. NM neurons show a late growth of permanent dendrites starting at P6. Over the first month, these dendrites change in length and number, depending upon rostrocaudal position, to establish the adult pattern in which high best frequency neurons have few or no dendrites. These changes are not complete by P21, when NM neurons still have more dendrites than in the adult owl. The neurons of NL have many short dendrites before hatching. Their number is greatly reduced by P6, and then does not change during later development. Like NM neurons, NL neurons and dendrites grow in the first month posthatch, and at P21, NL dendrites are longer than those in the adult owl. Thus, the auditory brainstem circuits grow in the first month after hatching, but are not yet mature at the time the head reaches its adult size.

Following cochlea removal in developing chicks, about 30% of the neurons in the ipsilateral second-order auditory nucleus, nucleus magnocellularis, undergo cell death. Administration of chloramphenicol, a mitochondrial protein synthesis inhibitor, results in a pronounced increase in deafferentation-induced cell death. In this study, we examined whether the chloramphenicol enhancement of deafferentation-induced cell death reveals the same ultrastructural characteristics that are seen in degenerating nucleus magnocellularis neurons after cochlea removal alone. Unilateral cochlea removal was performed on anaesthetized posthatch chicks. One group of animals was simultaneously treated with chloramphenicol. Six, twelve, or twenty-four hours following cochlea removal, n. magnocellularis neurons were studied by routine transmission electron microscopy. Particular attention was paid to the integrity of the polyribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum. Two ultrastructurally different types of neuronal degeneration were observed in the deafferented nucleus magnocellularis neurons: an early onset electron-lucent type that always involved ribosomal dissociation and a late-onset electron-dense type displaying nuclear pyknosis and severely damaged mitochondria. The percentage of nucleus magnocellularis neurons displaying ribosomal disintegration following cochlea removal was found to be markedly increased after chloramphenicol treatment. This finding suggests that mitochondrial function is important for the maintenance of a functional protein synthesis apparatus following deafferentation.

Increased glutamate or acetylcholine receptor stimulation may interact with mitochondrial failure to increase the vulnerability of cholinergic neurons within the nucleus basalis. Understanding of the mechanisms that underlie this vulnerability may lead to a therapy to prevent the degeneration of these neurons in Alzheimer's disease. In the presence of a mitochondrial energy deficit, excess stimulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors was not required for cytotoxicity. Furthermore, stimulation of cholinergic receptors was cytotoxic to cholinergic neurons but this toxicity was not enhanced by NMDA stimulation. Chronic administration of NMDA antagonists, such as memantine, amantadine or MK-801, attenuated the effects of mitochondrial failure in the presence or absence of excessive cholinergic or NMDA receptor stimulation.

Quantitative morphological analysis of the number of granule cell dendritic spines, as well as total dendritic length and dendritic branching of neurons in the dentate gyrus and the nucleus of Meynert was done in 11-day-old rats after passive avoidance training in the neonatal period. Learning improved stepwise and its neuromorphological sequels were characterized by a statistically significant enhanced number of dendritic spines, due to an increase of thin spines, enhanced dendritic branching in both structures, and increased total dendritic length in the dentate gyrus compared with the controls.

The ventral forebrain, including the ventral striatum, the ventral pallidum and the substantia innominata, is an important region involved in the functions of the basal ganglia and the limbic system, as well as the magnocellular corticopetal neurons of the nucleus basalis of Meynert. Although previous studies have shown that this region is richly innervated by GABAergic fibers, little is known with respect to the relative densities of GABAergic to non-GABAergic axon terminals in this region. To address this issue, we have developed a specific rabbit antiserum to GABA and used a postembedding immunocytochemical reaction to analyse the distribution of GABA-like immunoreactive axon terminals in the rat ventral striatum, ventral pallidum and substantia innominata. Of all axon terminals that form identifiable synapses within single ultrathin sections taken from these regions, 11.6% in the ventral striatum, 85.5% in the ventral pallidum and 64.8% in the substantia innominata were GABAergic. Differences were also found in the distribution patterns of these terminals with respect to the size of their synaptic target dendrites. These findings are consistent with previous findings that a majority of inputs to the ventral striatum are excitatory, and that a majority of inputs to the ventral pallidum are inhibitory. Our results provide a first approximation of the anatomical substrate for the physiology and pharmacology of GABA actions in the ventral forebrain region. These results also show that GABA may play an important role in the substantia innominata, where both the cholinergic and the non-cholinergic magnocellular corticopetal neurons reside within a neuropil innervated by many different non-cholinergic fibers.

The nucleus basalis of Meynert of normal brains, aged from 15 to 73 years was studied in Golgi preparations and in electron microscopy. The nucleus is composed of large triangular, polyhedral and bipolar cells which are intermixed with numerous small or medium-sized spiny neurons. All of the neurons form a dense three dimensional dendritic arborization, with numerous secondary and tertiary dendritic branches studded with spines. The ultrastructural analysis revealed numerous axodendritic and axosomatic synapses between the spines. The ultrastructural analysis revealed numerous axodendritic and axosomatic synapses between the spiny neurons and the large triangular and polyhedral neurons. The presynaptic axonic profiles are plenty of ellipsoid and round synaptic vesicles. Large presynaptic terminals are seen frequently surrounded by numerous dendritic spines forming synaptic glomeruli, in all the areas of the nucleus basalis of Meynert. An age depended decrease of the number of neurons was noticed affecting mainly the population of the spiny neurons. Although in senile and presenile dementias an impressive loss of the cholinergic neurons of the nucleus basalis was reported, in normal aging the large cholinergic neurons of the nucleus basalis seems to be intact, whereas the medium and small shaped spiny neurons are decreased in number suggesting that the GABA-ergic neurons are principally affected.

In order to study changes in neuronal activity in the nucleus basalis of Meynert in aging and Alzheimer's disease, we applied a polyclonal antibody directed against the Golgi apparatus on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded material. Subsequently, an image analysis system was used to measure the size of the Golgi apparatus in (i) all nucleus basalis neurons and also separately in (ii) the remaining large cells (perikaryonal diameter > 30 microns). A significant reduction of 49% in the size of the Golgi apparatus was found in the entire population of nucleus basalis neurons in Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, although there was no significant decrease in the size of the persisting large neurons in the nucleus basalis of Meynert, a significantly decreased size of the Golgi apparatus was found in these neurons in Alzheimer's disease. These results suggest that the overall activity of nucleus basalis neurons is severely decreased in Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, these data support the idea that atrophy and decreased activity are the main phenomena in the nucleus basalis in Alzheimer's disease; they also indicate that the size of the Golgi apparatus is a sensitive parameter to follow this process.

The distribution of neurons expressing luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) gene transcripts was mapped in the human hypothalamus and basal forebrain by in situ hybridization and computer-assisted microscopy. Hypothalamic blocks were dissected from five adult males and one adult female and snap frozen in isopentane. The blocks were serially sectioned either in the coronal or in the sagittal plane at a thickness of 20 microns. Approximately every twentieth section was incubated with a 35S-labeled cDNA probe complementary to LHRH mRNA. Specificity was confirmed by hybridization of adjacent sections with a probe targeted to the gonadotropin-associated protein (GAP) region of LHRH messenger ribonucleic acids (mRNA). Maps of neurons containing LHRH mRNA were manually digitized with the aid of an image-combining computer microscope system. We report a much wider distribution and greater numbers of LHRH neurons than have been previously described in the human brain. Three morphological subtypes were observed based on cell size and labeling density: 1) small, heavily labeled, oval or fusiform neurons, located primarily in the medial basal hypothalamus, ventral preoptic area, and periventricular zone; 2) small, oval, sparsely labeled neurons located in the septum and dorsal preoptic region and scattered from the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis to the amygdala ("extended amygdala"); and 3) large round neurons (> 500 microns 2 sectional profile area), intermediate in labeling density, scattered within the magnocellular basal forebrain complex, extended amygdala, ventral pallidum, and putamen. The pronounced differences in morphology, labeling density, and location of the three subtypes suggest that distinct functional subgroups of LHRH neurons exist in the human brain.

We determined the number of immunocytochemically identified oxytocin (OXT) and vasopressin (AVP) neurons in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the human hypothalamus of six Parkinson's disease (PD) patients ranging from 59 to 83 years of age. Six subjects without a primary neurologic or psychiatric disease, ranging from 69 to 88 years of age, served as controls. The OXT-immunoreactive cell number in the PVN of the PD patients was 22% lower than that of the control subjects. Although Lewy bodies were present in the nucleus basalis of Meynert, there were no Lewy bodies in the PVN of these patients. Doubt is raised about the presumed direct relationship between the presence of Lewy bodies and neuronal degeneration in PD. The AVP-immunoreactive cell number in the PD patients showed a similar decreasing trend, but the 18% reduction failed to reach statistical significance. The presence of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons in the PVN was not affected in PD patients, supporting the notion that dopaminergic neurons of the mesencephalon, but not of the hypothalamus, are affected in PD. The decreased number of OXT-containing neurons in the PVN suggests that dopamine may be important for the function of these neurons and may provide a neural basis for some autonomic and endocrine disturbances in PD.

A unilateral ibotenic acid lesion was placed in the nucleus basalis magnocellularis of 3- and 18-month-old rats. In the lesioned aging rats, the number of choline acetyltransferase-immunoreactive neurons of the nucleus basalis magnocellularis was markedly reduced in the ipsilateral side and to a lesser extent in the contralateral side. Twenty-one days after the lesion, the activity of choline acetyltransferase in the ipsilateral cortex was reduced by 40% in both groups of rats and by 24% in the contralateral frontal cortex of the aging rats. Intracerebroventricular administration of nerve growth factor (10 micrograms twice a week) to aging lesioned rats for 3 weeks after surgery resulted in a complete recovery in the number of choline acetyltransferase-immunoreactive neurons in the nucleus basalis of both sides, and choline acetyltransferase activity in the contralateral cortex, with little effect on the ipsilateral cortex. No potentiation was seen after the concurrent administration of GM1 ganglioside and nerve growth factor. Complete recovery in cortical choline acetyltransferase activity was only observed in the lesioned rats treated with nerve growth factor for 1 week before and 3 weeks after lesioning. Nerve growth factor treatment, both after the lesion, and before and after the lesion, improved the passive avoidance performance disrupted by the lesion. In young lesioned rats daily intraperitoneal administration of GM1 (30 mg/kg) for 21 days after surgery promoted both the recovery of choline acetyltransferase activity and passive avoidance performance. In aging rats GM1, even at a dose twice as large, failed to reverse the biochemical and morphological deficits and behavioral impairment induced by the lesion. Only when GM1 administration was started 3 days before the lesion, were a complete recovery in choline acetyltransferase activity in the contralateral cortex and a partial recovery in the ipsilateral cortex obtained. Our results indicate that nerve growth factor and, to some extent, GM1 facilitate the recovery of the cholinergic neurons after a lesion of the nucleus basalis in aging rats, but their efficacy is reduced. The lower efficacy of GM1 as compared to NGF might be due to the different routes of administration used.

Dementia associated with cortical and subcortical Lewy bodies (LB's) is a distinct entity with variable clinico-pathological presentation. We present the case of a 49-year-old male with progressive dementia. At autopsy, the brain showed diffuse cortical atrophy and ubiquitin-positive LB's in the dentate gyrus, deep layers of the neocortex, basal ganglia, nucleus basalis and substantia nigra. Thioflavine S stains of the neocortex and hippocampus were negative for the presence of plaques and tangles. Anti-ubiquitin immunostaining revealed abundant dystrophic neurites, torpedo-like axons and abnormal neuritic processes in the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus, pyramidal cell layer in CA1, subiculum, deep layers of the neocortex, claustrum, caudate, putamen and globus pallidus. Relatively mild neuritic alterations were observed in the nucleus basalis of Meynert (NbM) and locus ceruleus. The presence of this unique type of axonal damage associated with Lewy body disease, in the absence of plaques and tangles, might suggest a divergent mechanism of neuritic injury in the wide spectrum of this disorder.

The amygdala is severely and consistently affected by pathology in Alzheimer's disease. The distribution of Thioflavin S-stained neurofibrillary tangles and neuritic plaques was examined in the various nuclei that form the amygdala in 20 cases of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease and five non-demented control cases. Large numbers of neurofibrillary tangles and neuritic plaques were observed in the accessory basal and cortical nuclei and the cortical transition area, while there was lesser involvement of the mediobasal nucleus. The medial, lateral, laterobasal and central nuclei were relatively spared. The distribution of neurofibrillary tangles and neuritic plaques was compared with neuroanatomic connections known from non-human primate experimental studies. This comparison suggests that (1) nuclei receiving and giving rise to hippocampal projections are consistently affected by neuropathological alterations in Alzheimer's disease; (2) the nuclei which receive strong cholinergic projections from the nucleus basalis of Meynert (e.g. laterobasal nucleus) have, in general, relatively few neuritic plaques; and (3) nuclei which receive olfactory projections are not uniformly affected, the cortical nucleus being heavily affected but the medial nucleus consistently spared.

Noradrenergic input to the rat substantia innominata (SI) was analyzed in this study by immunocytochemical localization of dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH), the synthetic enzyme for noradrenaline. DBH immunoreactive (DBH+) axons ramified extensively within the SI and appeared to be contiguous with the DBH+ terminal fields within the bed nucleus of stria terminalis and the amygdaloid complex. DBH+ axons in the SI exhibited many large boutons en passant and boutons terminaux. These DBH+ boutons appeared much larger than those in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and thalamus. Electron microscopic analysis revealed that DBH+ boutons formed asymmetrical synapses with mainly dendrites, but also somata and spines of SI neurons. Dendrites which were postsynaptic to DBH+ boutons also formed synapses with many other unlabeled axon terminals. Since previous studies have shown that dendrites of SI cholinergic neurons formed few synapses, the present result suggests that the noradrenergic influence of SI cholinergic neurons may be mediated mainly by polysynaptic pathways.

The neurons of the monkey basal nucleus of Meynert are shown to contain a protein indistinguishable from the chicken intestinal 28kd vitamin D-dependent calcium-binding protein (Calbindin-D 28k; CPB). CBP is thought to shuttle and buffer Ca++-ions, thus regulating the intracellular calcium distribution and concentration. Our observation may engender interest in searching for the role Vitamin D-metabolites, the CBP and calcium-ions in the physiology and pathology of nucleus basalis Meynert neurons.

The large neurons of the nucleus basalis of Meynert (nbM) were examined with the electron microscope in 13 autopsied human adults. The neurons were characterized by a prominent Nissl substance and accumulation of lipofuscin granules. Lamellar bodies were often observed among the Nissl substance. Many of the lipofuscin granules were large and had a characteristic pronounced mosaic pattern of pale areas within gray zones. Menbranous structures within the nucleus and periodic transverse processes in the cristae of the mitochondria were regarded as postmortem alterations. Alzheimer's neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) were observed in two cases. Intranuclear fibrillary bundles were identified in four cases. Crystalloid formation in rough endoplasmic reticulum was identified in two cases. Hirano body was observed in a case of parkinsonism with dementia. Axonal swelling was seen in three cases and interpreted as axonal dystrophy, an age-related phenomenon. A basal body, which is unusual in neurons of the central nervous system (CNS), was observed in one case. Lewy bodies were observed in a case of parkinsonism.

Two cases of massive cerebral infarct in the territory of the middle cerebral artery on one side of the brain are presented, in which many (Patient 1) or several (Patient 2) neurofibrillary tangle-bearing neurons were observed in the nucleus basalis of Meynert (nbM), ipsilateral to the infarcts. Tangles were absent or rare in the opposite nbM or in other areas of the brain. Considering the widespread projection of nbM axons to the ipsilateral cerebral cortex, this suggests that formation of neurofibrillary tangles can occur as a retrograde reaction in nbM neurons secondary to massive, old cerebral infarction.

The substantia innominata (SI) and the caudal part of the globus pallidus (GP) in the rat are densely innervated by calcitonin gene-related peptide-immunoreactive (CGRP+) axons. Electron microscopic analysis revealed that CGRP+ boutons mainly formed asymmetrical synapses with dendrites in GP and SI.