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Introduction: Sepsis in people is defined as a life-threatening organ dysfunction (OD) caused by a dysregulated host response to infection. In veterinary medicine, sepsis is still defined by the presence of systemic inflammation plus the evidence of infection. Based on recent veterinary studies, multiorgan dysfunction syndrome (MODS) has been associated with a worse outcome in sepsis. Thus, the screening for OD is warranted to identify the most critically ill patients. The aim of this study was to investigate the diagnostic value of newonset OD for the prediction of sepsis and outcome in a population of critically ill dogs with systemic inflammation. Materials and methods: Dogs admitted to the Emergency Room and/or the Intensive Care Unit with systemic inflammation, defined by a serum C-reactive protein concentration > 1.6 mg/dL, were retrospectively included. Enrolled dogs were categorized according to the presence of sepsis or non-infectious systemic inflammation. The presence of newly diagnosed OD was assessed based on criteria adapted from human literature and previously reported canine criteria. Results: 275 dogs were included: 128 had sepsis and 147 had non-infectious systemic inflammation. The frequency of new-onset OD was not different between these groups. Only the presence of fluid-refractory hypotension was significantly associated with a diagnosis of sepsis (OR 10.51, 3.08-35.94; p < 0.0001). The frequency of at least two ODs was significantly higher in nonsurvivors compared to survivors, according to both the human and the veterinary criteria considered for the study (p = 0.0001 and p = 0.0004, respectively). Specifically, the presence of acute kidney injury, stupor or coma, prolonged Prothrombin Time and decreased Base Excess were associated with a higher risk of death in the multivariate binary logistic regression. Discussion: In this population of critically ill dogs with systemic inflammation, the detection of newly diagnosed ODs was not able to predict sepsis diagnosis, other than the presence of fluid-refractory hypotension. However, given the strong prognostic significance associated with ODs, our results support the early screening for ODs in any severe inflammatory critical care condition to identify high-risk patients and optimize their management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Catatonia is a complex psychomotor disorder characterized by motor, affective, and behavioral symptoms. Despite being known for almost 150 years, its pathomechanisms are still largely unknown.Methods: A systematic research on PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus was conducted to identify neuroimaging studies conducted on group or single individuals with catatonia. Overall, 33 studies employing structural magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI, n = 11), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI, n = 10), sMRI and fMRI (n = 2), functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS, n = 1), single positron emission computer tomography (SPECT, n = 4), positron emission tomography (PET, n = 4), and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS, n = 1), and 171 case reports were retrieved.Results: Observational sMRI studies showed numerous brain changes in catatonia, including diffuse atrophy and signal hyperintensities, while case-control studies reported alterations in fronto-parietal and limbic regions, the thalamus, and the striatum. Task-based and resting-state fMRI studies found abnormalities located primarily in the orbitofrontal, medial prefrontal, motor cortices, cerebellum, and brainstem. Lastly, metabolic and perfusion changes were observed in the basal ganglia, prefrontal, and motor areas. Most of the case-report studies described widespread white matter lesions and frontal, temporal, or basal ganglia hypoperfusion.Conclusions: Catatonia is characterized by structural, functional, perfusion, and metabolic cortico-subcortical abnormalities. However, the majority of studies and case reports included in this systematic review are affected by considerable heterogeneity, both in terms of populations and neuroimaging techniques, which calls for a cautious interpretation. Further elucidation, through future neuroimaging research, could have great potential to improve the description of the neural motor and psychomotor mechanisms underlying catatonia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Catatonia is widely under-detected, and the many differences across catatonia rating scales and diagnostic criteria could be a key reason why clinicians have a hard time knowing what catatonia looks like and what constitutes each of its features.Methods: This review begins by discussing the nature of catatonia diagnosis, its evolution in ICD and DSM, and different approaches to scoring. The central analysis then provides a descriptive survey of catatonia's individual signs across scales and diagnostic criteria. The goal of this survey is to characterize distinctions across scales and diagnostic criteria that can introduce variance into catatonia caseness.Results: Diagnostic criteria for catatonia in DSM-5-TR and ICD-11 are broadly aligned in terms of which items are included, item definitions and number of items required for diagnosis; however, the lack of item thresholds is a fundamental limitation. Many distinctions across scales and criteria could contribute to diagnostic discordance.Discussion: Clear, consistent definitions for catatonia features are essential for reliable detection. Of available scales, Bush-Francis and Northoff can be converted to diagnostic criteria with limited modification. Bush-Francis is the most efficient, with a screening instrument, videographic resources and standardized clinical assessment. Northoff offers the most detailed assessment and uniquely emphasizes emotional and volitional disturbances in catatonia.Conclusions: The field's understanding of the catatonia phenotype has advanced considerably over the past few decades. However, this review reveals many important limitations in the ICD and DSM as well as differences across scales and criteria that stand in the way of reliable catatonia detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Altered mental status (AMS) in older adults is a common reason for admission to emergency departments (EDs) and usually results from delirium, stupor, or coma. It is important to proficiently identify underlying factors and anticipate clinical outcomes for those patients. The primary objective of this study was to reveal and compare the clinical outcomes and etiologic factors of older patients with delirium, stupor, and coma. The secondary objective was to identify the 30-day mortality risk for those patients. The study was conducted as prospective and observational research. We included patients aged 65 years and older who presented with new-onset neurological and cognitive symptoms or worsening in baseline mental status. Patients who presented no change in their baseline mental status within 48 h and those who needed urgent interventions were excluded. Selected patients were assessed using RASS and 4AT tools and classified into three groups: stupor/coma, delirium, and no stupor/coma or delirium (no-SCD). Appropriate statistical tests were applied to compare these 3 groups. The 30-day mortality risks were identified by Cox survival analysis and Kaplan-Meier curve. A total of 236 patients were eligible for the study. Based on their RASS and 4AT test scores: 56 (23.7%), 94 (40.6%), and 86 (36.4%) patients formed the stupor/coma, delirium and no-SCD groups, respectively. There was no statistical difference in the three groups for gender, mean age, and medical comorbidities. Neurological (34.7%), infectious (19.4%), and respiratory (19.0%) diseases were the leading factors for AMS. Post-hoc tests showed that CCI scores of the delirium (6, IQR = 3) and stupor/coma (7, IQR = 3) groups were not significantly different. The 30-day mortality rates of stupor/coma, delirium, and no-SCD groups were 42.%, 15.9%, and 12.8%, respectively (p < 0.005). The hazard ratio of the stupor/coma group was 2.79 (CI: 95%, 1.36–5.47, p = 0.005). AMS remains a significant clinical challenge in EDs. Using the RASS and 4AT tests provides benefits and advantages for emergency medicine physicians. Neurological, infectious, and respiratory diseases can lead to life-threatening mental deterioration. Our study revealed that long-term mortality predictor CCI scores were quite similar among patients with delirium, stupor, or coma. However, the short-term mortality was significantly increased in the stupor/coma patients and they had 2.8 times higher 30-day mortality risk than others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntroductionSepsis in people is defined as a life-threatening organ dysfunction (OD) caused by a dysregulated host response to infection. In veterinary medicine, sepsis is still defined by the presence of systemic inflammation plus the evidence of infection. Based on recent veterinary studies, multiorgan dysfunction syndrome (MODS) has been associated with a worse outcome in sepsis. Thus, the screening for OD is warranted to identify the most critically ill patients. The aim of this study was to investigate the diagnostic value of new-onset OD for the prediction of sepsis and outcome in a population of critically ill dogs with systemic inflammation.Materials and methodsDogs admitted to the Emergency Room and/or the Intensive Care Unit with systemic inflammation, defined by a serum C-reactive protein concentration > 1.6 mg/dL, were retrospectively included. Enrolled dogs were categorized according to the presence of sepsis or non-infectious systemic inflammation. The presence of newly diagnosed OD was assessed based on criteria adapted from human literature and previously reported canine criteria.Results275 dogs were included: 128 had sepsis and 147 had non-infectious systemic inflammation. The frequency of new-onset OD was not different between these groups. Only the presence of fluid-refractory hypotension was significantly associated with a diagnosis of sepsis (OR 10.51, 3.08–35.94; p

Background Difficult airway occurs due to anatomical abnormalities of the airway that can be predicted through airway assessments; however, abnormalities beyond the vocal cord can be clinically asymptomatic and undetected until intubation failure to advance the endotracheal tube. Case We present a case of an unanticipated difficult airway in a stuporous 80-year-old female with a recent history of intracerebral hemorrhage and prolonged intubation. She required emergency ventriculo-peritoneal shunt surgery due to the progression of her hydrocephalus. Under anesthesia, facemask ventilation was easy and video laryngoscopy provided a full view of the glottis; however, endotracheal tube (ETT) entry failed. We suspected stenosis beyond the vocal cord, and a smaller diameter ETT was inserted and maintained for airway management during emergency surgery. Postoperative neck computed tomography findings revealed laryngotracheal stenosis (LTS). Conclusions Anesthesiologists should be aware that LTS may be asymptomatic and consider difficult airway guidelines in patients with history of prolonged endotracheal intubation.

Coma is a state marked by the absence of arousal (wakefulness, vigilance) and awareness of one's self and environment. Patients in coma do not respond to internal or external stimuli and cannot be roused. Coma results from diffuse dysfunction of neuronal systems that govern awareness and arousal, and is a neurological emergency. The three main mechanisms of coma are structural brain lesions, diffuse neuronal dysfunction, and rarely psychiatric causes. Firstly, the patient should be stabilized by treating life-threatening conditions. Diagnostic and therapeutic steps should occur simultaneously. The history, physical examination and investigation results should be used to identify structural causes and diagnose treatable conditions. In many instances, the diagnosis is clear. Adoption of a systematic approach, based on the underlying principles of coma pathophysiology, combined with knowledge of the reversible causes increases the probability of establishing an early diagnosis. Patients not undergoing brain imaging should be regularly re-assessed. If CT imaging is unrevealing, then consideration should be given to advanced imaging and looking for evidence of treatable infection or poisoning, seizures including non-convulsive status epilepticus, endocrine disorders or thiamine deficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Competing Interests: Dr. McCall is a scientific advisor for Carelon and Idorsia, he receives honoraria from Wolters Kluwer, and he receives research support from Axon Medical Technologies and the George Institute for Global Health. Dr. Rosenquist receives research support from LivaNova. Dr. Maixner reports no financial relationships with commercial interests.

In response to contagion, competing and contradictory movements emerge that engender openness to new modes of life and reactionary defenses of old ones, that acknowledge mutual dependency and vulnerability and that heighten the policing and surveillance of borders. Through reading the Empire project, this article articulates these as struggles over measure that unfold on the terrain of sovereignty and biopolitical economy. We show that the passage from modern to imperial sovereignty hinges on the former's inability to adequately impose calculatory regimes, to which the latter's flexibility and fluidity responds. This accompanies the passage from industrial to biopolitical command, from regulation through the wage to rearbitration through extractivism. Having articulated the contemporary coordinates within which the multitude finds itself, we then propose an educational weapon for the struggle against sovereignty and capital: stupidity. Turning to Jean-François Lyotard, we demonstrate just how fundamentally the rule of Empire depends on the outside of measure for its continual reproduction, and how Empire frames the communicative networks of biopolitical labor, a framing from which Hardt and Negri haven't adequately broken. As the other of thought, as that which can't be articulated, commanded, or absorbed by capital, stupidity remains totally useless and unproductive for Empire, which is exactly where its potency lies for the multitude. By critically engaging stupidity, we can refrain from reducing the pandemic to a need for heightened immunity and enclosure achieved through articulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Locked-in syndrome (LiS) is a rare condition characterized by quadriplegia, lower cranial nerve paralysis, and mutism with preservation of consciousness, vertical gaze, and upper eyelid movement. Here, we present a case that had initial mild neurological symptoms, stupor, fully conscious state, and computed tomography-brain showing old cerebral infarcts. There was a rapid deterioration of the condition into LiS and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain showing infarcts bilaterally in the cerebellum, pons, midbrain, and thalami and finally leading to death. Relevant studies for discussion are presented. This case highlights the importance of MRI brain at the earliest even for cases with initial mild neurological symptoms and stupor to make an early diagnosis.

The report elaborated a case of a 52-year-old female patients with over 10 years of schizophrenia complicating 12 months of stupor. After a course of modified electroconvulsive therapy（MECT） combined with risperidone oral solution， the patient gradually became active and functionally recovered， and remained stable. This case suggests that MECT combined with risperidone may allow schizophrenia patients in a state of prolonged stupor to obtain clinical rehabilitation and effectively stabilize psychotic symptoms. The discussion is based on this case with a view to providing references for clinical treatment.

Dissociative stupor is a common psychiatric disease lacking an established standard treatment. The lack of therapeutic options may be due to the spontaneous and quick complete remission of most patients. However, since some patients experience multiple relapses and prolonged stupor, investigating potential prevention and treatment options is critical. We reported the case of a 61-year-old Japanese woman who presented with intermittent dissociative stupor for several months. Despite her prolonged symptoms, the administration of lorazepam, escitalopram, and aripiprazole, which selectively enhance GABAergic and serotoninergic activity, improved her stupor and prevented relapse. These findings may help with the treatment of persistent dissociative stupor.

Dissociative stupor is a common psychiatric disease lacking an established standard treatment. The lack of therapeutic options may be due to the spontaneous and quick complete remission of most patients. However, since some patients experience multiple relapses and prolonged stupor, investigating potential prevention and treatment options is critical. We reported the case of a 61-year-old Japanese woman who presented with intermittent dissociative stupor for several months. Despite her prolonged symptoms, the administration of lorazepam, escitalopram, and aripiprazole, which selectively enhance GABAergic and serotoninergic activity, improved her stupor and prevented relapse. These findings may help with the treatment of persistent dissociative stupor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Locked-in syndrome (LiS) is a rare condition characterized by quadriplegia, lower cranial nerve paralysis, and mutism with preservation of consciousness, vertical gaze, and upper eyelid movement. Here, we present a case that had initial mild neurological symptoms, stupor, fully conscious state, and computed tomography-brain showing old cerebral infarcts. There was a rapid deterioration of the condition into LiS and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain showing infarcts bilaterally in the cerebellum, pons, midbrain, and thalami and finally leading to death. Relevant studies for discussion are presented. This case highlights the importance of MRI brain at the earliest even for cases with initial mild neurological symptoms and stupor to make an early diagnosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Even though the absence of the body prevents sure conclusions, the death of Alexander the Great remains a hot topic of retrospective diagnosis. Due to the serious mishandling of ancient sources, the scientific literature had Alexander dying of every possible natural cause. In previous works, the hypothesis that typhoid fever killed Alexander was proposed, based on the presence of the remittent fever typical of this disease in the narrations of Plutarch and Arrian. Here we provide additional evidence for the presence of stupor, the second distinctive symptom of typhoid fever. In fact, based on the authority of Caelius Aurelianus and Galen, we demonstrate that the word ἄφωνος, used to describe the last moments of Alexander, is a technical word of the lexicon of the pathology of Hippocrates. Used by him, the word defines a group of diseases sharing a serious depression of consciousness and motility. The association of stupor with the remittent fever strengthens the typhoid fever hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: While gas narcosis is familiar to most divers conducting deep (> 30 metres) dives, its effects are often considered minuscule or subtle at 30 metres. However, previous studies have shown that narcosis may affect divers at depths usually considered safe from its influence, but little knowledge exists on the effects of gas narcosis on higher cognitive functions such as decision-making in relatively shallow water at 30 metres. Impaired decision-making could be a significant safety issue for a multitasking diver., Methods: We conducted a study exploring the effects of gas narcosis on decision-making in divers breathing compressed air underwater. The divers (n = 22) were evenly divided into 5-metre and 30-metre groups. In the water, we used underwater tablets equipped with the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), a well-known psychological task used to evaluate impairment in decision-making., Results: The divers at 30 metres achieved a lower score (mean 1,584.5, standard deviation 436.7) in the IGT than the divers at 5 metres (mean 2,062.5, standard deviation 584.1). Age, body mass index, gender, or the number of previous dives did not affect performance in the IGT., Conclusions: Our results suggest that gas narcosis may affect decision-making in scuba divers at 30 metres depth. This supports previous studies showing that gas narcosis is present at relatively shallow depths and shows that it may affect higher cognitive functions., (Copyright: This article is the copyright of the authors who grant Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine a non-exclusive licence to publish the article in electronic and other forms.)

Sadism is the tendency to derive pleasure, especially sexual gratification, from inflicting pain, suffering or humiliation on others. Despotism, on the other hand is something dominance through threat of punishment and violence. The novel Q & A has huge social impact and it represents some of the serious problems that haunt the Indian society. This paper analyzes the consequences of Sadism and Despotism through the characters of Premkumar, Shantaram and Shyam. It also highlights the real sufferings of women in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Catatonia is a psychomotor syndrome which has historically been associated with schizophrenia. Many clinicians have thought that the prevalence of this condition has been decreasing over the past few decades. This review reminds clinicians that catatonia is not exclusively associated with schizophrenia, and is still common in clinical practice. Many cases are related to affective disorders or are of an idiopathic nature. The illusion of reduced prevalence has been due to evolving diagnostic systems that failed to capture catatonic syndromes. This systemic error has remained unchallenged, and potentiated by the failure to perform adequate neurological evaluations and catatonia screening exams on psychiatric patients. We find that current data supports catatonic syndromes are still common, often severe and of modern clinical importance. Effective treatment is relatively easy and can greatly reduce organ failure associated with prolonged psychomotor symptoms. Prompt identification and treatment can produce a robust improvement in most cases. The ongoing prevalence of this syndrome requires that psychiatrists recognize catatonia and its presentations, the range of associated etiologies, and the import of timely treatment.

Stroke is third most common cause of death and the most common reason for disability in people over 45 years old. It impacts people in social and economic aspects. As a result of stroke, patients struggle to function in everyday life, they often require rehabilitation as they are limited in the way they can move. Experts reckon that the most serious complications after stroke are problems with cognitive functions and depression (1). Very often there is more attention paid to deficit of mobility or speech than cognitive function problems or depression. Stupor occurs in 1/3 of patients that experienced stroke.

Divers are at enhanced risk of hypothermia, due to the independent action of the inspired inert gases on thermoregulation. Thus, narcosis induced by acute (≤2 h) exposure to either hyperbaric nitrogen or normobaric nitrous oxide (N 2 O) impairs shivering thermogenesis and accelerates body core cooling. Animal-based studies, however, have indicated that repeated and sustained N 2 O administration may prevent N 2 O-evoked hypometabolism. We, therefore, examined the effects of prolonged intermittent exposure to 30% N 2 O on human thermoeffector plasticity in response to moderate cold. Fourteen men participated in two ∼12-h sessions, during which they performed sequentially three 120-min cold-water immersions (CWIs) in 20°C water, separated by 120-min rewarming. During CWIs, subjects were breathing either normal air or a normoxic gas mixture containing 30% N 2 O. Rectal and skin temperatures, metabolic heat production (via indirect calorimetry), finger and forearm cutaneous vascular conductance (CVC; laser-Doppler fluxmetry/mean arterial pressure), and thermal sensation and comfort were monitored. N 2 O aggravated the drop in rectal temperature ( P = 0.01), especially during the first (by ∼0.3°C) and third (by ∼0.4°C) CWIs. N 2 O invariably blunted the cold-induced elevation of metabolic heat production by ∼22%-25% ( P < 0.001). During the initial ∼30 min of the first and second CWIs, N 2 O attenuated the cold-induced drop in finger ( P ≤ 0.001), but not in forearm CVC. N 2 O alleviated the sensation of coldness and thermal discomfort throughout ( P < 0.001). Thus, the present results demonstrate that, regardless of the cumulative duration of gas exposure, a subanesthetic dose of N 2 O depresses human thermoregulatory functions and precipitates the development of hypothermia. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Human thermoeffector plasticity was evaluated in response to prolonged iterative exposure to 30% N 2 O and moderate cold stress. Regardless of the duration of gas exposure, N 2 O-induced narcosis impaired in a persistent manner shivering thermogenesis and thermoperception.

Objective: To describe the signalment, etiology, and short‐term outcome of dogs and cats presenting in a coma or stupor. Design: Retrospective study conducted between May 2012 and February 2015. Setting: Multicenter out‐of‐hours emergency service provider. Animals: Three hundred eighty‐six patients presenting in a coma or stupor to a multicenter out‐of‐hours emergency care provider. Interventions: None. Measurements and Main Results: Records were reviewed to determine the most likely etiology of coma or stupor. Short‐term outcomes were defined as deceased (died or euthanized) or transferred (case handed over to a daytime clinic or discharged). There were 168 dogs (coma n = 112, stupor n = 56) and 218 cats (coma n = 148, stupor n = 70) identified. Coma and stupor were more prevalent in cats compared to dogs, and Chihuahuas were over represented. Blood glucose concentrations were frequently outside established reference intervals. Excluding undetermined causes, the most common causes in dogs included traumatic brain injury (TBI) 16.0% (n = 27, deceased n = 22), hypoglycemia 10.7% (n = 18, deceased n = 8), shock 10.1% (n = 17, deceased n = 16), seizure 9.5% (n = 16, deceased n = 13), and renal or hepatic dysfunction 5.3% (n = 9, deceased n = 7). For cats, the most common causes included TBI 21.6% (n = 47, deceased n = 38), renal or hepatic dysfunction 13.3% (n = 29, deceased n = 25), intoxication 10.1% (n = 22, deceased n = 18), hypoglycemia 6.0% (n = 13, deceased n = 4), and shock 5.0% (n = 11, deceased n = 8). When treatment was attempted, 46.0% of dogs (n = 44/96) and 41.2% of cats (n = 35/85) survived to be transferred. Compared to all other etiologies, death was less likely when coma or stupor was attributed to hypoglycemia. Conclusion: In cases where a cause was determined, TBI was the predominant etiology of coma and stupor for both species. With the exception of coma and stupor attributed to hypoglycemia, the overall short‐term prognosis was poor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Clinical absences are now classified as "generalized nonmotor (absence) seizures" by the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE). The aim of this paper is to critically review the concept of absences and to put the accompanying focal and motor symptoms into the context of the emerging pathophysiological knowledge. Methods: For this narrative review we performed an extensive literature search on the term "absence," and analyzed the plethora of symptoms observed in clinical absences. Results: Arising from the localization and the involved cortical networks, motor symptoms may include bilateral mild eyelid fluttering and mild myoclonic jerks of extremities. These motor symptoms may also occur unilaterally, analogous to a focal motor seizure with Jacksonian march. Furthermore, electroencephalography (EEG) abnormalities may exhibit initial frontal focal spikes and consistent asymmetries. Electroclinical characteristics support the cortical focus theory of absence seizures. Simultaneous EEG/functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measurements document cortical deactivation and thalamic activation. Cortical deactivation is related to slow waves and disturbances of consciousness of varying degrees. Motor symptoms correspond to the spike component of the 3/s spike-and-wave-discharges. Thalamic activation can be interpreted as a response to overcome cortical deactivation. Furthermore, arousal reaction during drowsiness or sleep triggers spikes in an abnormally excitable cortex. An initial disturbance in arousal mechanisms ("dyshormia") might be responsible for the start of this abnormal sequence. Significance: The classification as "generalized nonfocal and nonmotor (absence) seizure" does not covey the complex semiology of a patient's clinical events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Formaldehyde (FA), a carcinogenic potential toxic aldehyde, has attracted more and more attention in the domain of science. Less dose of FA can cause pain, emesia, somnolence and stupor, and uptake of large amounts of FA can cause death. To make sure that remains FA has no detrimental on human health, it is pivotal to control the FA level via early detection. Hence, to develop a rapid, sensitive and selective method for detection of sulfites is of great importance. Herein, a novel PET-based fluorescent probe MPAD with ultrafast detection time (6 min) and ultralow detection limit (20 nM) for formaldehyde (FA) detection was developed. Then, the test paper for point of care detection of FA was demonstrated. Furthermore, the probe was successfully applied for detection in living system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Electroconvulsive therapy is a proven, safe, effective, and in many cases irreplaceable, treatment for a wide range of neuropsychiatric illnesses over time, but the mechanism of action remains unexplained. A large number of papers have been published that describe partial changes after convulsions in various diagnoses, more than a hundred hypotheses. This article attempts to map current knowledge and outline further developments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]