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Background: Attention plays a critical role in learning. While multiple behavioral and neuroimaging methods can measure attention, portable EEG provides the opportunity to measure attention in a more naturalistic environment. However, the field is still in its infancy, with varied research aims and methodologies. The current scoping review aims to clarify: (1) the research aims of the studies, (2) the portable EEG collection methodologies, and (3) the EEG measures of attention. Method: The review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis - Scoping Review extension (PRISMA-ScR). Two authors extracted data items from 45 eligible studies selected from five databases. Results: Three research aims were identified in previous studies: examining the effects of learning-related factors on attention measured by portable EEG (n = 23), developing attention classification algorithms (n = 7) and software for monitoring and promoting attention (n = 10), and verifying the signal quality of EEG derived from portable EEG in attentional tasks (n = 5). Most studies sampled fewer than 40 college students and recorded EEG no longer than 40 minutes with portable EEG devices developed by Neurosky. The testing sites and tasks were predominantly out-of-lab controlled settings and structured learning materials. EEG measures were selected by theory-based (n = 8) or data-driven approaches (n = 37), with most studies quantifying task-related attention with the spectrum power in multiple EEG bands. Discussion: Portable EEG has been a promising approach to measuring attention in educational settings. Meanwhile, there are challenges and opportunities related to the better translation of cognitive neuroscience research into practice.

The current study used behavioural and electroencephalograph measures to compare the transferability of three home-based interventions — cognitive training (CT), neurofeedback training (NFT), and CT combined with NFT — for reducing symptoms in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD). Following a multiple-baseline single-case experimental design, twelve children were randomised to a training condition. Each child completed a baseline phase, followed by an intervention phase. The intervention phase consisted of 20 sessions of at-home training. Tau-U analysis and standardised visual analysis were adopted to detect effects. Results showed that CT improved inhibitory function and NFT improved alpha EEG activity and working memory. The combined condition, which was a reduced ‘dose’ of CT and NFT, did not show any improvements. The three conditions did not alleviate AD/HD symptoms. While CT and NFT may have transfer effects on executive functions, considering the lack of improvement in symptoms, this study does not support CT and NFT on their own as a treatment for children with AD/HD.

Improving neurocognitive functions through remote interventions has been a promising approach to developing new treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD). Remote neurocognitive interventions may address the shortcomings of the current prevailing pharmacological therapies for AD/HD, e.g., side effects and access barriers. Here we review the current options for remote neurocognitive interventions to reduce AD/HD symptoms, including cognitive training, EEG neurofeedback training, transcranial electrical stimulation, and external cranial nerve stimulation. We begin with an overview of the neurocognitive deficits in AD/HD to identify the targets for developing interventions. The role of neuroplasticity in each intervention is then highlighted due to its essential role in facilitating neuropsychological adaptations. Following this, each intervention type is discussed in terms of the critical details of the intervention protocols, the role of neuroplasticity, and the available evidence. Finally, we offer suggestions for future directions in terms of optimizing the existing intervention protocols and developing novel protocols.

Background Neurofeedback training aims to develop awareness and control of psychological states in order to self-regulate brain activity and while used widely therapeutically, important questions remain unanswered. Central to these aims is an assumed association between the live EEG-based feedback and the subjective experience of a psychological state. To date, there is little evidence to support this relationship. Previous studies examining the association between an EEG index and subjective experience have explored only the presence or absence of the state, or merely assumed state variations. The current study aims to examine this association by considering how different levels of a psychological state (i.e., attention) are reflected in EEG coherence. Methods Our approach aims to allow comparisons of EEG coherence between psychological states (attention vs. rest), and also within subjectively-rated levels of a psychological state (attention) through a purpose-designed questionnaire. Thirty healthy adult participants performed a resting eyes-open (REO) and attention modulation task, while 28 channels of EEG were recorded. Levels within the psychological state were subjectively-attested by participants on a trial-by-trial basis. Results The main analyses examined the effect of subjectively-rated attention levels (SRALs) on EEG coherence, with results suggesting that high and low SRALs may be represented by: 1) different levels of alpha and theta coherence at anterior and posterior electrodes of the frontal lobe bilaterally, and 2) different levels of alpha coherence between central and parietal lobes, also bilaterally. Discussion These findings provide partial, preliminary evidence for EEG correlates of SRALs. These findings may have implications for understanding underlying mechanisms of NFT, which is an underdeveloped area.

While the symbiotic nature of human-dog relationships and perceived benefits to human health have attracted much scientific interest, the mechanisms through which human-dog interactions may confer health benefits to humans are still poorly understood. The aim of this systematic literature review was to synthesize evidence of physiological changes associated with human-dog interactions with relevance to human health. Electronic databases were systematically searched (PubMed, MEDLINE with full text, Scopus, PsycINFO, CINAHL Plus with Full Text, and Web of Science Core Collection) for relevant studies. Of the 13,072 studies identified, 129 met the inclusion criteria, with approximately half being randomized trials (Level 2) based on the Oxford Centre for Evidence Based Medicine level system. Measures employed to study human physiological changes associated with human-dog interactions most commonly involved cardiac parameters and hormones, with negligible research of brain activity. The main positive findings were increases in heart rate variability and oxytocin, and decreases in cortisol with human-dog interactions. These physiological indicators are consistent with activation of the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) and oxytocinergic system (OTS), and down-regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity. These results provide evidence of specific pathways through which human-dog contact may confer health benefits, likely through relaxation, bonding, and stress reduction. However, these findings should be interpreted contextually due to limitations and methodological differences. Previous research using other biological variables was limited in quantity and quality, thus impeding firm conclusions on other possible mechanisms. Further research is needed in some psychophysiological domains, particularly electroencephalography, to better understand central nervous system (CNS) effects. The findings of this review have implications for human-dog interactions to positively affect several stress-sensitive physiological pathways and thus confer health benefits. This supports their incorporation in various clinical, non-clinical, and research settings to develop evidence-based interventions and practices for cost-effective and efficacious ways to improve human health.

Changes in EEG when moving from an eyes-closed to an eyes-open resting condition result from bottom-up sensory processing and have been referred to as activation. In children, activation is characterized by a global reduction in alpha, frontally present reductions for delta and theta, and a frontal increase for beta. The present study aimed to replicate frontal EEG activation effects using single-channel, dry-sensor EEG, and to extend current understanding by examining developmental change in children. Frontal EEG was recorded using a single-channel, dry-sensor EEG device while 182 children aged 7 to 12 years completed eyes-closed resting (EC), eyes-open resting (EO), and focus (FO) tasks. Results indicated that frontal delta, theta, and alpha power were reduced, and frontal beta power was increased, in the EO compared with the EC condition. Exploratory analysis of a form of top-down activation showed that frontal beta power was increased in the FO compared with to the EO condition, with no differences for other bands. The activation effects were robust at the individual level. The bottom-up activation effects reduced with age for frontal delta and theta, increased for frontal alpha, with no developmental change for top-down or bottom-up frontal beta activation. These findings contribute further to validation of the single-channel, dry-sensor, frontal EEG and provide support for use in a range of medical, therapeutic, and clinical domains.

This article reviews the eyes-open and eyes-closed resting electroencephalogram (EEG) literature for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) from 2002 to 2019. This time has seen substantial increase in interest in resting state EEG, with investigations moving from a comparison of an AD/HD sample to a control group, to research investigating a wide range of theoretical and clinical aspects of the disorder. This has included investigations of subgroups based on their EEG profile, sex differences in the EEG, increasing interest in the EEG of adults, and the effects of comorbid disorders on the EEG of people with AD/HD. Research has further investigated the hyper- and hypo- arousal models of AD/HD, as well as the developmental deviation model. From a clinical perspective, a growing body of literature is emerging trying to ascertain if the EEG can be used as a diagnostic test, particularly the theta/beta ratio. While these advances have been made, there is widespread use of both the eyes-open and eyes-closed resting paradigms as being interchangeable, despite the two paradigms differ on a number of important factors. There is also lack of independent replication within the literature, which is needed to consolidate many of the findings that have been published.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often persists into adulthood, with a shift of symptoms including less hyperactivity/impulsivity and more co-morbidity of affective disorders in ADHDadult. Many studies have questioned the stability in diagnosing of ADHD from childhood to adulthood, and the shared and distinct aberrant functional connectivities (FCs) between ADHDchild and ADHDadult remain unidentified. We aim to explore shared and distinct FC patterns in ADHDchild and ADHDadult, and further investigated the cross-cohort predictability using the identified FCs. After investigating the ADHD-discriminative FCs from healthy controls (HCs) in both child (34 ADHDchild, 28 HCs) and adult (112 ADHDadult,77 HCs) cohorts, we identified both shared and distinct aberrant FC patterns between cohorts and their association with clinical symptoms. Moreover, the cross-cohort predictability using the identified FCs were tested. The ADHD-HC classification accuracies were 84.4% and 81.0% for children and male adults, respectively. The ADHD-discriminative FCs shared in children and adults lie in the intra-network within default mode network (DMN) and the inter-network between DMN and ventral attention network, positively correlated with total scores of ADHD symptoms. Particularly, inter-network FC between somatomotor network and dorsal attention network was uniquely impaired in ADHDchild, positively correlated with hyperactivity index; whereas the aberrant inter-network FC between DMN and limbic network exhibited more adult-specific ADHD dysfunction. And their cross-cohort predictions were 70.4% and 75.6% between each other. This work provided imaging evidence for symptomatic changes and pathophysiological continuity in ADHD from childhood to adulthood, suggesting that FCs may serve as potential biomarkers for ADHD diagnosis.

Supplementation of omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LCPUFA) may enhance self-regulation (SR) and executive functioning (EF) in children of preschool age. The aim of the Omega Kid Study was to investigate the effect of n-3 LCPUFA supplementation on SR and EF in typically developing preschool-aged children. A double-blind placebo-controlled pilot trial was undertaken, the intervention was 12 weeks and consisted of 1.6 g of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) per day compared to placebo. The HS-Omega-3 Index® was assessed by capillary blood samples at baseline and post-intervention. Seventy-eight children were enrolled and randomised to either the n-3 LCPUFA treatment (n = 39) or placebo (n = 39) group. Post intervention, there was a significant three-fold increase in the HS-Omega-3 Index® in the n-3 LCPUFA group (p &lt, 0.001). There were no improvements in SR or EF outcome variables for the n-3 LCPUFA group post intervention compared to the placebo group determined by linear mixed models. At baseline, there were significant modest positive Spearman correlations found between the HS-Omega-3 index® and both behavioural self-regulation and cognitive self-regulation (r = 0.287, p = 0.015 and r = 0.242, p = 0.015 respectively). Although no treatment effects were found in typically developing children, further research is required to target children with sub-optimal self-regulation who may benefit most from n-3 LCPUFA supplementation.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by cognitive deficits associated with attention. Prior studies have revealed the potential impact of ADHD on basic perception and cognitive ability in patients with ADHD. In this study, bilateral posterior P1 and N1 were measured in 122 Chinese children aged 7-12 years (64 with ADHD) to investigate the developmental characteristics of early perception during visual processing in school-age children with ADHD. For children with ADHD, a larger P1 activity with an atypical developmental pattern was evoked and observed for the visual search performance. These findings offer new insights into the mechanisms of cognitive developmental deficits and intervention techniques in children with ADHD.

Objective Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common psychiatric disorders found in children. While an extensive literature has documented the EEG in this clinical population, few studies have investigated EEG throughout the lifespan in ADHD. This study aimed to investigate EEG maturational changes, in subjects with ADHD combined type, that spanned from childhood into adulthood. Method Twenty five male adults with ADHD were assessed between the ages of 8–12 years and again as adults. At both ages, an EEG was recorded during an eyes-closed resting period, and power estimates were calculated for relative delta, theta, alpha and beta. Results At the childhood assessment, the ADHD subjects had elevated posterior delta. Relative theta was elevated, with diminished alpha activity across all sites. Significant maturational changes were observed, with reductions in the delta and theta bands, and increases in the alpha and beta bands across all electrodes. In adulthood, relative to controls, diminished frontal delta and elevated global theta activity were apparent. Conclusions Substantial developmental changes occurred in the EEG of these subjects. These results identify important issues when using EEG as part of the diagnosis for ADHD. Significance This study is the first to explore EEG changes from childhood to adulthood over an 11 year period in the same subjects with ADHD.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) is the most common psychiatric disorder of childhood and has been extensively researched using EEG technology. Within this literature, one of the most widely examined measures has been the theta/beta ratio. The theta/beta ratio was initially hypothesised to represent the arousal mechanism. However, subsequent research has shown this to be inaccurate and it was hypothesised that the ratio represents cognitive processing capacity. To examine that hypothesis, this study aimed to test the relationship between the P300 and the theta/beta ratio. The P300, absolute alpha and the theta/beta ratio were measured at Fz, Cz and Pz, and correlated in a group of 47 normal adults. A significant positive correlation was found between P300 latency and the theta/beta ratio. No relationship was found between P300 amplitude and the theta/beta ratio. P300 amplitude, but not latency, significantly correlated with alpha power. These results support the hypothesis that the theta/beta ratio is a marker of cognitive processing capacity.

The current study used behavioral and electroencephalograph measures to compare the transferability of cognitive training (CT), neurofeedback training (NFT), and CT combined with NFT in children with AD/HD. Following a multiple-baseline single-case experimental design, twelve children were randomized to a training condition. Each child completed a baseline phase, followed by an intervention phase. The intervention phase consisted of 20 sessions of at-home training. Tau-U analysis and standardized visual analysis were adopted to detect effects. CT improved inhibitory function, and NFT showed improved alpha activity and working memory. The combined condition, who was a reduced 'dose' of CT and NFT, did not show any improvements. The three conditions did not alleviate AD/HD symptoms. While CT and NFT may have near transfer effects, considering the lack of improvement in symptoms, this study does not support CT and NFT on their own as a treatment for children with AD/HD.

Introduction We developed a neurocognitive assessment tool (NCAT) in consultation with mental health professionals working with children with AD/HD as a diagnostic aid and screening tool. This study examines the predictive utility of NCAT in the classification of children with AD/HD Inattentive presentation. Method Fifty three children with AD/HD Inattentive presentation and 161 typically-developing children completed an NCAT assessment. Discriminant function analyses examined group membership prediction for separate components of NCAT and for the components combined. Results The combined model correctly classified 93.4 % of participants, with 91.4 % sensitivity and 93.9 % specificity. Contributions to classification were from SNAP-IV, psychological needs satisfaction, self-regulation, executive function performance, and EEG. The combined model resulted in a 9.3 % increase in specificity and 5.9 % increase in sensitivity compared to SNAP-IV alone. Conclusions NCAT provides good discrimination between children with and without AD/HD of the Inattentive presentation, and further investigation including other subtypes and comorbidities is warranted.

Stroke rehabilitation suffers from low levels of patient engagement, impeding recovery. Virtual rehabilitation (VR) approaches can improve patient outcomes; however, there is limited understanding of the participant’s user experience and the field lacks a validated, objective measure of VR engagement. A neurophysiological measure of engagement in healthy adults was therefore examined, to inform future clinical studies. Twenty-four participants (Mage 26.7 years, range 18–47) interacted with a tabletop VR system (Elements DNA, or EDNA), after which they rated their experience on the presence questionnaire (PQ). Separately, participants completed tasks eliciting low (resting eyes-open and -closed) and high (EDNA VR and roller coaster simulation) levels of engagement while continuous electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded from a single, left pre-frontal electrode. EEG differences between the resting and simulation conditions included an increase in theta power (p

Objective: This preliminary study investigated effectiveness of neurocognitive training on academic engagement (AET) for children with ADHD. The training approach targeted working memory, inhibitory control, and attention/relaxation (via brain electrical activity). Method: A reversal design with a 2-week follow-up was used to assess the effectiveness of the treatment on two children with diagnosed ADHD in two learning settings. Direct observation was used to collect academic-related behavior. Results: Improvements in on-task expected behavior (ONT-EX) and general AET, as well as reductions in off-task motor activity (OFF-MA) and off-task passive behavior (OFF-PB) were observed for both students over baselines and across the settings. Moreover, differences in behavioral change were found between participants and settings. Conclusion: These findings support using the treatment for improving academic performance of children with ADHD. Future studies may investigate influences of contextual differences, nontreatment variables, or adult’s feedback during the training session on treatment effectiveness.

Objective: The electroencephalogram (EEG) has been widely used in AD/HD research. The current study firstly aimed to replicate a recent trend related to EEG theta/beta ratio (TBR) in children and adolescents. Also, the study aimed to examine the value of resting EEG activity as biomarkers for executive function (EF) in participants with AD/HD. Method: Fifty-three participants with AD/HD and 37 healthy controls were recruited. Resting EEG was recorded with eyes closed. Participants with AD/HD additionally completed EF tasks via the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery. Results: TBR did not differ between groups; however, TBR was positively correlated with inattentive symptoms in AD/HD. Other correlations were found between EEG activity and neuropsychological functions including spatial planning and decision making in the AD/HD group. Conclusion: The results do not support the diagnostic value of TBR. Instead, given the heterogeneous features, the results support the prognostic value of EEG in AD/HD.

Children&rsquo, s favourite food and beverage brands use various tactics to foster positive associations and loyalty. This brand-consumer dynamic is frequently influenced by the use of implicit techniques and emotional appeals. Few studies have used physiological methods to examine the connections that brands build with children and the influence this has on their automatic responses. These techniques are potentially less prone to bias than behavioural or cognitive methods. This is the first study to explore the implicit response that children have to images of their favourite food and beverage brands using skin conductance responses as a marker of arousal. Australian children aged 8&ndash, 11 years (n = 48) were recruited. Images of the participants&rsquo, favourite branded food and beverage products, alongside images of the same products unpackaged, their family and friends, and neutral objects were presented in a randomised order with a standard timed interval between images. Children were significantly more aroused by branded images of their favourite food and beverage products than by their unpackaged counterparts (p &lt, 0.042, d = 0.4). The physiological response to the branded products was similar to the response to the children&rsquo, s family and friends (p = 0.900, d = &minus, 0.02). These findings suggest that children may have an implicit connection to their favourite branded products.

Background: Early and objective prediction of functional outcome after stroke is an important issue in rehabilitation. Electroencephalography (EEG) has long been utilized to describe and monitor brain function following neuro-trauma, and technological advances have improved usability in the acute setting. However, skepticism persists whether EEG can provide the same prognostic value as neurological examination. Objective: The current cohort study examined the relationship between acute single-channel EEG and functional outcomes after stroke. Methods: Resting-state EEG recorded at a single left pre-frontal EEG channel (FP1) was obtained from 16 adults within 72 h of first stroke. At 30 and 90 days, measures of disability (modified Rankin Scale; mRS) and involvement in daily activities (modified Barthel Index; mBI) were obtained. Acute EEG measures were correlated with functional outcomes and compared to an early neurological examination of stroke severity using the National Institute of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS). Classification of good outcomes (mRS ≤1 or mBI ≥95) was also examined using Receiver Operator Curve analyses. Results: One-third to one-half of participants experienced incomplete post-stroke recovery, depending on the time point and measure. Functional outcomes correlated with acute theta values (rs 0.45–0.60), with the strength of associations equivalent to previously reported values obtained from conventional multi-channel systems. Acute theta values ≥0.25 were associated with good outcomes, with positive (67-83%) and negative predictive values (70-90%) comparable to those obtained using the NIHSS. Conclusions: Acute, single-channel EEG can provide unique, non-overlapping clinical information, which may facilitate objective prediction of functional outcome after stroke.

Recording systems to acquire electroencephalogram (EEG) data are traditionally lab-based. However, there are shortcomings to this method, and the ease of use and portability of emerging wireless EEG technologies offer a promising alternative. A previous validity study demonstrated data derived from a single-channel, wireless system (NeuroSky ThinkGear, San Jose, California) is comparable to EEG recorded from conventional lab-based equipment. The current study evaluated the reliability of this portable system using test-retest and reliable change analyses. Relative power (RP) of delta, theta, alpha, and beta frequency bands was derived from EEG data obtained from a single electrode over FP1 in 19 healthy youth (10–17 years old), 21 healthy adults (18–28 years old), and 19 healthy older adults (55–79 years old), during eyes-open, eyes-closed, auditory oddball, and visual n-back conditions. Intra-class correlations (ICCs) and Coefficients of Repeatability (CRs) were calculated from RP data re-collected one-day, one-week, and one-month later. Participants' levels of mood and attention were consistent across sessions. Eyes-closed resting EEG measurements using the portable device were reproducible (ICCs 0.76–0.85) at short and longer retest intervals in all three participant age groups. While still of at least fairreliability (ICCs 0.57–0.85), EEG obtained during eyes-open paradigms was less stable, and any change observed over time during these testing conditions can be interpreted utilizing the CR values provided. Combined with existing validity data, these findings encourage application of the portable EEG system for the study of brain function.

Objective Repeated experience with stimuli often primes faster, more efficient neuronal and behavioural responses. Exaggerated repetition priming effects have previously been reported in obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), however little is known of their underlying neurobiology or disorder-specificity, hence we investigated these factors. Methods We examined event-related potentials (ERPs) and behaviour while participants with OCD, panic disorder and healthy controls (20 per group) performed a Go/NoGo task which manipulated target repetition sequences. Results Both clinical groups showed stronger reaction time (RT) priming than HCs, which in OCD was greater in a checking, than washing, subgroup. Both clinical groups had similar RT deficits and ERP anomalies across several components, which correlated with psychopathology and RT priming. In OCD alone, N1 latency tended to increase to repeated stimuli, correlated with O–C symptoms, whereas it decreased in other groups. OCD-checkers had smaller target P2 amplitude than all other groups. Conclusions Enhanced neural priming is not unique to OCD and may contribute to salient sensory-cognitive experiences in anxiety generally. These effects are related to symptom severity and occur to neutral stimuli and in the context of overall RT impairment, suggesting they may be clinically relevant and pervasive. The results indicate overlapping information-processing and neurobiological factors across disorders, with indications of OCD-specific trends and subgroup differences. Significance This first electrophysiological investigation of OCD priming in OCD to include anxious controls and OCD subgroups allows for differentiation between overlapping and OCD-specific phenomena, to advance neurobiological models of OCD.

Background. Transient ischemic attack (TIA) is characterized by stroke-like neurologic signs and symptoms in the absence of demonstrable structural neuropathology. There is no test for TIA, with classification often reliant on subjective, retrospective report. Functional brain measures such as the electroencephalogram (EEG) may be helpful in objectively detecting and describing the pathophysiology of TIA, but this has not been adequately examined. Methods. EEG was obtained from a single electrode over the left frontal lobe during 3-minute resting-state and auditory oddball conditions administered to consecutive patients within 72 hours of admission to the acute stroke ward of a tertiary hospital. Separately, patients were classified by their treating team as having suffered either an ischemic stroke (n = 10) or a TIA (n = 10). Relative power of delta, theta, alpha, and beta EEG frequency bands were extracted for comparison between the 2 clinical groups and an existing normative sample of 10 healthy, age-, gender-, and education-matched older adults. Results. Analysis of variance with post hoc testing identified pronounced delta activity in stroke patients, while alpha and beta power were elevated in TIA patients. Both patient groups exhibited attenuated theta activity compared with healthy controls. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis identified thresholds for each EEG frequency capable of distinguishing the 3 participant groups. Conclusions. TIA, ischemic stroke, and healthy aging are each associated with distinct electrophysiological profiles. These preliminary findings suggest that acute EEG may be helpful in elucidating the pathophysiology and reversibility of TIA symptoms, and further exploration of the value of this unique functional brain data is encouraged.

In this study we extend on behavioural evidence to examine the effect of time on EEG measures related to arousal and emotion/motivation in children with/without AD/HD. Thirty children with AD/HD and 30 age- and sex-matched controls participated. EEG was recorded during an eyes-closed resting condition and divided into three 2.5 min blocks after pre-processing. Time effects for absolute and relative alpha activity were found in healthy controls; these effects did not interact with AD/HD status. Interactions between time and AD/HD status were found for absolute theta, relative theta, and theta/beta ratio (TBR), with these EEG indices increasing over time in children with AD/HD. Moreover, IQ played a role in the interaction between time and AD/HD status. These results are consistent with predictions from both the optimal stimulation model and the delay aversion model, and suggest important methodological considerations for future EEG research in children with/without AD/HD.

Objective: The present study investigated the neuropathology of everyday-life executive function (EF) deficits in adults with ADHD with high IQ. Method: Forty adults with ADHD with an IQ ≥ 120 and 40 controls were recruited. Ecological EFs were measured, and eyes-closed Electroencephalograph (EEG) signals were recorded during a resting-state condition; EEG power and correlations with impaired EFs were analyzed. Results: Compared with controls, the ADHD group showed higher scores on all clusters of EF. The ADHD group showed globally increased theta, globally decreased alpha, and increased central beta activity. In the ADHD group, central beta power was significantly related to emotional control ratings, while no such correlation was evident in the control group. Conclusion: The results suggest that resting-state beta activity might be involved in the neuropathology of emotional control in adults with ADHD with high IQ.

Objective This study explored the relationships between resting-state electroencephalogram (RS-EEG) localized activation and two important types of executive functions (EF) to extend the prognostic utilization of RS-EEG in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD). Also, the role of central nervous system (CNS) arousal in the relationships was examined. Methods Fifty-eight children with AD/HD participated in the study. RS-EEG localized activation was derived from spectral power differences between EEG in eyes-closed and eyes-open conditions. CNS arousal was measured based on alpha band power. Common and everyday EF scores were obtained as EF outcomes. Results Frontal delta activation predicted common EF ability and posterior alpha activation predicted everyday EF. A serial mediation analysis found that lower CNS baseline arousal was related to greater arousal and delta activation in series, which in turn related to worse common EF. A follow-up study found that baseline arousal was related to larger interference cost. Conclusions RS-EEG is indicative of individual differences in two important types of EF in children with AD/HD. Lower CNS arousal may be a driving force for the poorer common EF performance. Significance The current study supports prognostic utilization of RS-EEG and AD/HD models that take resting brain activity into consideration in children with AD/HD.

The theta/beta ratio (TBR) is a major area of interest within electroencephalogram (EEG) research in AD/HD. While researchers suggest a prognostic role for TBR in AD/HD, its relationship to behavior remains uncertain. Recent evidence suggests that elevated TBR in AD/HD may be related to atypical inhibition, particularly at an attentional level. This study aimed to examine the performance on three inhibitory tasks of children with AD/HD. Fifty-eight children with AD/HD participated, divided into an elevated TBR (ET) group and a control group (CT). A behavioral disassociation was found - compared to CT, ET showed more difficulty in inhibiting surrounding stimuli but had less day-to-day inhibitory issues measured by BRIEF. There was no significant group difference on response inhibition. The results support the prognostic value of TBR in AD/HD. Elevated TBR may be an inhibitory biomarker; further studies are needed to explore the behavioral implications in patients without elevated TBR.

Background Disinhibition is apparent in users of many substances, including heavy drinkers. Previous research has shown that brief training to improve inhibitory control is associated with reduced alcohol consumption. We investigated whether a new form of inhibitory training would produce greater reductions, relative to a carefully designed control condition and a proven method of reducing consumption, the Brief Alcohol Intervention (BAI). Methods One hundred and fourteen regular drinkers were assigned randomly to one of five training conditions: Control (no inhibitory training); Beer-NoGo (inhibit responses linked to task-irrelevant pictures of beer); Restrained-Stop (requiring more urgent inhibition but without pictures of beer); Combined (a previously untested form of training requiring urgent inhibition to pictures of beer); or BAI. The outcome measures were alcohol consumption in the week before and after training, and in a bogus taste test administered immediately post-training. Results Participation in the study, regardless of condition, was associated with reductions in weekly consumption. However, only the BAI produced a greater reduction relative to the Control condition. The training tasks were not associated with reductions in taste test consumption. Conclusions Although concerns about low power limit confidence, the current study suggests that three forms of inhibitory training do not have a substantial effect on drinking beyond the effect of simple assessment, in comparison to a control task which does not promote impulsive responding. Future research needs to establish a training protocol that produces greater reductions in consumption not only relative to the effect of assessment but also relative to a BAI.

Given evidence that early executive functioning sets the stage for a broad range of subsequent\ud outcomes, researchers have sought to identify ways to foster these cognitive capacities. An\ud increasingly common approach involves computerized ‘brain training’ programs, yet there are\ud questions about whether these are well suited for fostering the early development of executive\ud functions (EFs). The current series of studies sought to design, develop, and provide evidence for the\ud efficacy of embedding cognitive activities in a commonplace activity – shared reading of a children’s\ud book. The book, Quincey Quokka’s Quest, required children to control their thinking and behaviour to\ud help the story’s main character through a series of obstacles. The first study investigated effects of\ud reading with embedded cognitive activities in individual and group contexts on young children’s\ud executive functions (EFs). The second study compared reading with embedded cognitive activities\ud against a more-active control condition (dialogic reading) that similarly engaged children in the\ud reading process yet lacked clear engagement of EFs. The third study sought to investigate whether the\ud effect of reading the story with embedded EF activities changed across differing doses of the\ud intervention and whether effects persisted 2 months post-intervention. Findings provide converging\ud evidence of intervention effects on working memory and shifting in as little as 3 weeks (compared to\ud more traditional reading) and maintenance of these gains 2 months later. This suggests the efficacy of\ud embedding cognitive activities in the context of everyday activities, thereby extending the range of\ud users and contexts in which this approach can be used.

Background Cannabis use is associated with the development of psychotic symptoms and increased risk for schizophrenia. The mismatch negativity (MMN) is a brain event-related potential marker of change detection thought to index glutamatergic N -methyl-D-aspartate receptor-mediated neurotransmission, which is known to be deficient in schizophrenia. This study examined auditory MMN in otherwise healthy chronic cannabis users compared with nonuser control subjects. Methods Forty-two chronic cannabis users and 44 nonuser healthy control subjects completed a multi-feature MMN paradigm, which included duration, frequency, and intensity deviants (deviants 6%; standards 82%). The MMN was compared between users and control subjects as well as between long- and short-term users and age- and gender-matched control subjects. Associations between MMN, cannabis use measures, and symptoms were examined. Results The MMN amplitude was significantly reduced to frequency but not duration or intensity deviants in overall cannabis users relative to control subjects. Frequency MMN was similarly attenuated in short- and long-term users relative to control subjects. Long-term users also exhibited reduced duration MMN relative to control subjects and short-term users and this was correlated with increased duration of exposure to cannabis and increased psychotic-like experiences during intoxication. In short-term users, a younger age of onset of regular cannabis use and greater frequency of use were associated with greater psychotic-like experiences and symptomatic distress. Conclusions These results suggest impaired sensory memory that might reflect N -methyl-D-aspartate receptor dysfunction in chronic cannabis users. The pattern of MMN alterations in cannabis users differed from that typically observed in patients with schizophrenia, indicating overlapping but distinct underlying pathology.

Objective Impaired inhibition may perpetuate repetitive symptoms in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), however OCD-specific deficits have yet to be established. We investigated neural correlates of inhibition in OCD vs. healthy and anxious controls. Methods ERPs and reaction times (RTs) were compared between participants with OCD ( n =20), panic disorder (PD; n =20) and healthy controls (HCs; n =20) during an adapted Go/NoGo task, which manipulated inhibitory difficulty. Results A classic P3 NoGo anteriorisation effect occurred across groups. Both clinical groups showed RT impairment, and similar topographical anomalies of several (P2, N2 and P3) ERP components. Notably, both clinical groups lacked the strong frontally maximal N2 component topography seen in the HCs, across stimuli. Additionally, with increasing inhibitory difficulty, N2 latency increased in HCs but not in the clinical groups. Conclusions Unexpectedly, ERP and behavioural anomalies during inhibition in OCD were not qualitatively different to those in PD, but were generally more severe. Common general and inhibitory deficits may underlie intrusive mental phenomena in both conditions. Significance This first ERP response inhibition study in OCD to include anxious controls disconfirmed hypotheses regarding OCD-specific inhibitory deficits, indicating the importance of comparing OCD to other conditions, to evaluate neurobiological models.

Attentional biases to threat are considered central to anxiety disorders, however physiological evidence of their nature and time course is lacking. Event-related potentials (ERPs) characterized sensory and cognitive changes while 20 outpatients with panic disorder (PD), 20 with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and 20 healthy controls (HCs) responded to the color (emotional Stroop task) or meaning of threatening and neutral stimuli. ERPs indicated larger P1 amplitude and longer N1 latency in OCD, and shorter P1 latency in PD, to threatening (versus neutral) stimuli, across instructions to attend to, or ignore, threat content. Emotional Stroop interference correlated with phobic anxiety and was significant in PD. Participants with emotional Stroop interference had augmented P1 and P3 amplitudes to threat (versus neutral) stimuli when color-naming. The results suggest early attentional biases to threat in both disorders, with disorder-specific characteristics. ERPs supported preferential early attentional capture and cognitive elaboration hypotheses of emotional Stroop interference.

Demanding tasks require a greater amount of effort, in which case individuals are required to alter their energetic-state to a level appropriate to perform the task. According to the Cognitive-Energetic Model (CEM), children with AD/HD are unable to effectively modulate their energetic state, leading to task underperformance. Using an Eriksen flanker task with varying event-rates, the current study compared the ability of typically-developing children and children with AD/HD to modulate their energetic state. In line with the CEM, it was predicted that children with AD/HD would underperform in the fast and slow event-rates. Results indicated that the groups did not differ in commission errors (i.e., incorrect responses). However, children with AD/HD made more omission errors to incongruent stimuli at the fast and slow event-rates, compared to controls. N2 amplitude was significantly larger for the AD/HD than control group in the slow event-rate. It is concluded that the energetic state modulation dysfunction in children with AD/HD results in an inability to attend to the task, as opposed to an inability to perform the task itself. Furthermore, these task performance differences did not manifest in either the N2 or P3 ERP components. Therefore, inattention in children with AD/HD may have its locus in response preparation, as opposed to stimulus processing, but more research is required to validate these conjectures.

Previous studies report reductions in symptom severity after combined working memory (WM) and inhibitory control (IC) training in children with AD/HD. Based on theoretical accounts of the role of arousal/attention modulation problems in AD/HD, the current study examined the efficacy of combined WM, IC, and neurofeedback training in children with AD/HD and subclinical AD/HD. Using a randomized waitlist control design, 85 children were randomly allocated to a training or waitlist condition and completed pre- and post-training assessments of overt behavior, trained and untrained cognitive task performance, and resting and task-related EEG activity. The training group completed twenty-five sessions of training using Focus Pocus software at home over a 7 to 8-week period. Trainees improved at the trained tasks, while enjoyment and engagement declined across sessions. After training, AD/HD symptom severity was reduced in the AD/HD and subclinical groups according to parents, and in the former group only according to blinded teachers and significant-others. There were minor improvements in two of six near-transfer tasks, and evidence of far-transfer of training effects in four of five far-transfer tasks. Frontal region changes indicated normalization of atypical EEG features with reduced delta and increased alpha activity. It is concluded that technology developments provide an interesting a vehicle for delivering interventions and that, while further research is needed, combined WM, IC, and neurofeedback training can reduce AD/HD symptom severity in children with AD/HD and may also be beneficial to children with subclinical AD/HD.

The current gold standard for the diagnosis of AD/HD is based on subjective reports from teachers, parents, and clinicians. These measures can be problematic as they are open to rater biases and also fail to account for the developmental nature of symptoms. The current study examined the diagnostic accuracy of two objective measures, a computer-based Continuous Performance Task and actigraphy (e.g. motion tracking device) in differentiating children with AD/HD (N=70) from healthy controls (N=70). It was predicted that task-unrelated movement (measured via actigraphy) during a CPT and CPT performance would have high classification accuracy in differentiating children with AD/HD from healthy controls, and that the inclusion of age would increase this accuracy. Results indicated that total energy expenditure from the task-unrelated wrist and ankle movement during the CPT was higher in children with AD/HD than controls, and that CPT performance was poorer in AD/HD than controls. Discriminant function analyses revealed that the CPT Full-Scale Response Control Quotient and wrist and ankle energy expenditure provided optimal classification accuracy - correctly classifying 86% of cases, with sensitivity of 81.4% and specificity of 91.4%. The prediction that classification accuracy would increase with the inclusion of age was not supported by the data. When taken in conjunction with other clinical assessments, these findings suggest that actigraphy during a CPT and CPT performance may increase the probability of a correct AD/HD diagnosis.

Background: Obesity is a growing global issue that is linked to cognitive and psychological deficits. Objective: This preliminary study investigated the efficacy of training to improve inhibitory control (IC), a process linked to overeating, on consumption and cognitive control factors. Methods: This study utilized a multisession mobile phone–based intervention to train IC in an overweight and obese population using a randomized waitlist-control design. A combination of self-assessment questionnaires and psychophysiological measures was used to assess the efficacy of the intervention in terms of improved general IC and modified food consumption after training. Attitudes toward food were also assessed to determine their mediating role in food choices. A total of 58 participants (47 female) completed 2 assessment sessions 3 weeks apart, with 2 weeks of intervention training for the training group during this time. The groups did not differ in baseline demographics including age, body mass index, and inhibitory control. Results: Inhibitory control ability improved across the training sessions, with increases in P3 amplitude implying increased cognitive control over responses. Inhibitory control training was associated with increased healthy and reduced unhealthy food consumption in a taste test and in the week following training, as measured by the Healthy Eating Quiz and the food consumption test. Cognitive restraint was enhanced after training for the training but not the waitlist condition in the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire, implying that attempts to avoid unhealthy foods in the future will be easier for the training group participants. Conclusions: Inhibitory control training delivered via a purpose-designed mobile phone app is easy to complete, is convenient, and can increase cognitive restraint and reduce unhealthy food consumption. Trial Registration: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12616000263493; http://www.ANZCTR.org.au/ACTRN12616000263493.aspx (Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation.org/6ioHjGING) [JMIR Serious Games 2016;4(2):e10]

Prolonged heavy exposure to cannabis is associated with impaired cognition and brain functional and structural alterations. We recently reported attenuated mismatch negativity (MMN) and altered P50 sensory gating in chronic cannabis users. This study investigated the extent of brain functional recovery (indexed by MMN and P50) in chronic users after cessation of use. Eighteen ex-users (median 13.5 years prior regular use; median 3.5 years abstinence) and 18 nonusers completed(1)a multifeature oddball task with duration, frequency, and intensity deviants and(2)a P50 paired-click paradigm. Trend level smaller duration MMN amplitude and larger P50 ratios (indicative of poorer sensory gating) were observed in ex-users compared to controls. Poorer P50 gating correlated with prior duration of cannabis use. Duration of abstinence was positively correlated with duration MMN amplitude, even after controlling for age and duration of cannabis use. Impaired sensory gating and attenuated MMN amplitude tended to persist in ex-users after prolonged cessation of use, suggesting a lack of full recovery. An association with prolonged duration of prior cannabis use may indicate persistent cannabis-related alterations to P50 sensory gating. Greater reductions in MMN amplitude with increasing abstinence (positive correlation) may be related to either self-medication or an accelerated aging process.

There is accumulating evidence that computerised cognitive training of inhibitory control and/or working memory can lead to behavioural improvement in children with AD/HD. Using a randomised waitlist control design, the present study examined the effects of combined working memory and inhibitory control training, with and without passive attention monitoring via EEG, for children with and without AD/HD. One hundred and twenty-eight children (60 children with AD/HD, 68 without AD/HD) were randomly allocated to one of three training conditions (waitlist; working memory and inhibitory control with attention monitoring; working memory and inhibitory control without attention monitoring) and completed with pre- and post-training assessments of overt behaviour (from 2 sources), trained and untrained cognitive task performance, and resting EEG activity. The two active training conditions completed 25 sessions of training at home over a 4- 5-week period. Results showed significant improvements in overt behaviour for children with AD/HD in both training conditions compared to the waitlist condition as rated by a parent and other adult. Post-training improvements in the areas of spatial working memory, ignoring distracting stimuli, and sustained attention were reported for children with AD/HD. Children without AD/HD showed behavioural improvements after training. The improvements for both groups were maintained over the 6-week period following training. The passive attention monitoring via EEG had a minor effect on training outcomes. Overall, the results suggest that combined WM/IC training can result in improved behavioural control for children with and without AD/HD.

Objective Studies indicate that the change from closed to open eyes in a resting condition results in an increase in skin conductance level (SCL) and a global decrease in EEG alpha activity, both indicative of increased arousal. Other studies show that ingestion of caffeine also produces SCL increase and alpha reduction. This study investigated the additivity of the effects of these two independent arousing variables. Method EEG activity and SCL were recorded from 22 university students during both eyes-closed and eyes-open resting conditions, under the action of both caffeine and placebo, in a counterbalanced randomised double-blind study. Results SCL increased significantly from eyes-closed to eyes-open conditions, and from placebo to caffeine, with no interaction. Global reductions in EEG alpha amplitude were apparent with opening of the eyes and caffeine ingestion; again, there was no interaction. Caffeine had a larger effect than opening the eyes on SCL, but their relative effect sizes were reversed in alpha. The two dependent measures showed the predicted negative correlation in both eyes-closed placebo and eyes-open caffeine conditions, with the latter substantially reduced relative to the former. Conclusions Caffeine and opening the eyes have additive effects on two measures of arousal, increasing SCL and reducing global EEG alpha. However, the independent variable effects are not equivalent, suggesting that one or both measures reflect additional non-arousal processes. Significance As caffeine is widely used by both children and adults, knowledge of the additivity of arousal effects of caffeine and opening the eyes is important in controlling participant state in EEG studies. The current results confirm the use of mean global alpha amplitude as a measure of resting-state arousal, but also point to non-arousal effects of visual input.

The utility of P50 paired-click measures is limited by their unestablished reliability, unknown effects of time, and long protocol. This study measured within-session reliability, temporal course, effect of varying interpair interval (IPI), and peak definition and ratio calculation methods on P50 paired-click measures in healthy participants. Results indicate higher reliability for difference (ICC=.72) than ratio (ICC=.44) method; when P50 peaks are defined as baseline-to-peak than peak-to-peak; time-related changes; and comparable P50 paired-click measures at long (9 s) and short (3-7 s) IPIs. After controlling for time effects, P50 paired-click measures are relatively reliable within-session and are best measured using the difference method and defined as baseline-to-peak amplitude; time effects must be taken into account when measuring P50 paired-click measures in a long paradigm; and IPI can be shortened in studies with healthy samples.

From previous work in our laboratory, increases in skin conductance level (SCL), together with global (across-scalp) decreases in electroencephalogram (EEG) alpha power and increases in alpha frequency, are useful indices of arousal increase, and here we sought to identify changes in these indices with caffeine ingestion in children. We explored the effects of a single oral dose of caffeine (80 mg) in a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled repeated-measures cross-over study. Thirty healthy children aged between 8 and 13 years (mean age 10.5 years; 11 females) participated in two sessions, 1 week apart. EEG and SCL from a 3 min eyes-closed epoch, commencing approximately 30 min after ingestion of caffeine or placebo, were examined. Caffeine was associated with increased SCL, and a global reduction in EEG power in the theta and alpha bands, as well as topographically-focused reductions in delta and beta power, and a focal increase in alpha frequency. Only global alpha level demonstrated the expected inverse relationship with SCL in both placebo and caffeine conditions. These results are generally consistent with recent electrodermal and EEG studies of arousal. Together with our previous adult data, they indicate that caffeine can be used to increase arousal in both adults and children, without the potential confounds associated with varying task demands. Caffeine appears useful as a simple tool for manipulating arousal in studies exploring its role in physiological and behavioural functioning. This may be helpful in determining the role of hypothetical arousal anomalies in syndromes such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Background For nearly 20 years, the θ/β power ratio in the electroencephalogram (EEG) has been used within the attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) literature as a marker of central nervous system (CNS) arousal, underpinning current models of the disorder. However, this usage has not been validated. We aimed to directly test the θ/β ratio as a marker of arousal within this population. Methods Resting state EEG activity was investigated as a function of CNS arousal in two age-matched groups of boys (each n = 30), with and without ADHD. Arousal was defined in terms of skin conductance level (SCL), which has a long history as a measure of CNS arousal. Results Relative θ power and the θ/β ratio were elevated, and SCL and relative α and β power were reduced, in the ADHD group compared with control subjects. In both groups, mean α level correlated negatively with SCL. There was no significant correlation between the θ/β ratio and SCL. Conclusions These data contradict the supposed linkage between the θ/β ratio and arousal in ADHD, confirming previous results from normal children. They suggest the need for reevaluation of current models of the disorder and reconceptualization of existing EEG data from both normal and atypical populations.