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A comprehensive understanding of failure modes of solar photovoltaic (PV) modules is key to extending their operational lifetime in the field. In this review, first, specific failure modes associated with mature PV technologies, such as crystalline silicon (c-Si), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) and cadmium telluride (CdTe), are framed by sources of specific failure modes, their development from the early-developmental stages onwards and their impact upon long term performance of PV modules. These failure modes are sorted by both PV technology and location of occurrence in PV modules, such as substrate, encapsulant, front and rear electrode, absorber and interlayers. The second part of the review is focused on emerging PV technologies, such as perovskites solar cells, dye sensitised and organic PVs, where due to their low to medium technology readiness levels, specific long-term degradation mechanisms have not fully emerged, and most mechanisms are only partially understood. However, an in-depth summary of the known stability challenges associated with each emerging PV technology is presented. Finally, in this paper, lessons learned from mature PV technologies are reviewed, and considerations are given in to how these might be applied to the further development of emerging technologies. Namely, any emerging PV technology must eventually pass industry-standard qualification tests, while warranties for the lifetime of modern c-Si-based modules might be extended beyond the existing warranted life of 25 years.

Daniel Rodriguez, Caspar Roxburgh, Claire Fansworth, Ariel Ferrante, Joseph Eyre, Stuart Irvine-Brown

Chapter examining the issues surrounding urban retrofitting to achieve sustainable and integrated water management (SIWM)

The Reserve Bank oversees the payment system for the purpose of promoting the maintenance of a sound and efficient financial system. Consistent with the Reserve Bank’s relatively light-handed payment system oversight powers, the Reserve Bank’s approach is to be clear about its objectives and to encourage industry to develop solutions towards these objectives. However, as other central banks have found, industry-led solutions cannot always be delivered, or delivered in a timely manner. Consequently, the Reserve Bank is stepping up engagement with industry to expedite projects that help meet our policy objectives. A current payment system oversight issue for the Reserve Bank is settlement risk in the retail payment system. Empirical analysis shows that routing high-value transactions through the retail system significantly increases end-of-day inter-bank exposures. This article assesses this risk and possible ways to address settlement risk in the retail payment system.

Following a steady increase over about five years, the number of people unemployed finally began to fall towards the end of 1991. Changes in unemployment numbers were reflected, to a degree, in employment numbers. Employment fell during most of the late 1980s, and a sustained rise in employment numbers did not occur until early in 1992. Falls in unemployment occur as the number of people moving into unemployment is exceeded by the number of people moving out of unemployment. Similarly, increases in employment result from a net inflow into employment. Of all the people who are not employed in one period, some have a higher probability than others of being employed in the next period. Using gross-flows data from all the 35 quarters of the Household Labour Force Survey, this paper examines the effect of selected characteristics on the probability of moving into employment, and how the effect of these characteristics has changed over time. Four characteristics are examined: occupation sought, job search method, length of time since last employment and educational attainment.