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AMPA-type gultamate receptors (AMPARs) mediate excitatory signaling in the brain and are therapeutic targets for the treatment of diverse neurological disorders. The receptors interact with a variety of auxiliary subunits, including the transmembrane AMPAR regulatory proteins (TARPs). The TARPs influence AMPAR biosynthesis and trafficking and enhance receptor responses by slowing desensitization and deactivation and increasing single-channel conductance. TARP

For nearly five decades, Ricardo Miledi was among the foremost researchers in elucidating how nerves transmit signals across synapses. Born in Chihuahua, Mexico, he qualified as a medical doctor, obtained a PhD with Arturo Rosenblueth and then, while in Canberra with John Eccles FRS, was invited by Bernard Katz FRS to join the Biophysics department at University College London, where he stayed from 1958 to 1984. Both independently and with Katz, he demonstrated that influx of calcium into the presynaptic nerve terminal is the essential trigger for the release of the neurotransmitter that carries signals across to the postsynaptic cell. He found that cutting the nerve to a frog's muscle increased the number and distribution of its muscle acetylcholine (ACh) receptors, which he purified and established as membrane proteins. Together with Katz, he introduced the technique of membrane noise analysis to determine the properties of the individual ion channels opened by ACh, providing the first functional characterization of a single receptor with integral ion channel. With Eric Barnard (FRS 1981), he pioneered a new approach facilitating the study of neurotransmitter receptors and ion channels by ‘transplanting’ them from brain and other tissues into largeXenopusoocyte cells by injection of messenger RNA. After moving to the University of California, Irvine, in 1984, he helped to establish the Mexican Institute for Neurobiology at Querétaro. Working in Irvine and Mexico he extended this oocyte expression technique to incorporate transplanted brain membranes, particularly from patients with epilepsy or other neurological disorders. He received many honours for his work, including the Royal Medal (1998), but was happiest working in his lab applying his extraordinary technical skills and imagination to study synaptic transmission and inspiring a generation of neuroscientists.

α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs) are ligand-gated cationic channels formed from combinations of GluA1-4 subunits. Pathogenic variants of GRIA1-4 have been described in patients with developmental delay, intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorder, and seizures, with GRIA2 variants typically causing AMPAR loss of function. Here, we identify a novel, heterozygous de novo pathogenic missense mutation in GRIA2 (c.1928 CT, p.A643V, NM_001083619.1) in a 1-year-old boy with epilepsy, developmental delay, and failure to thrive. We made patch-clamp recordings to compare the functional and pharmacological properties of variant and wild-type receptors expressed in HEK293 cells, with and without the transmembrane AMPAR regulatory protein γ2. This showed GluA2 A643V-containing AMPARs to exhibit a novel gain of function, with greatly slowed deactivation, markedly reduced desensitization, and increased glutamate sensitivity. Perampanel, an antiseizure AMPAR negative allosteric modulator, was able to fully block GluA2 A643V/γ2 currents, suggesting potential therapeutic efficacy. The subsequent introduction of perampanel to the patient's treatment regimen was associated with a marked reduction in seizure burden, a resolution of failure to thrive, and clear developmental gains. Our study reveals that GRIA2 disorder can be caused by a gain-of-function variant, and both predicts and suggests the therapeutic efficacy of perampanel. Perampanel may prove beneficial for patients with other gain-of-function GRIA variants.

AMPA receptors are tetrameric glutamate‐gated ion channels that mediate a majority of fast excitatory neurotransmission in the brain. They exist as calcium‐impermeable (CI‐) and calcium‐permeable (CP‐) subtypes, the latter of which lacks the GluA2 subunit. CP‐AMPARs display an array of distinctive biophysical and pharmacological properties that allow them to be functionally identified. This has revealed that they play crucial roles in diverse forms of central synaptic plasticity. Here we summarise the functional hallmarks of CP‐AMPARs and describe how these are modified by the presence of auxiliary subunits that have emerged as pivotal regulators of AMPARs. A lasting change in the prevalence of GluA2‐containing AMPARs, and hence in the fraction of CP‐AMPARs, is a feature in many maladaptive forms of synaptic plasticity and neurological disorders. These include modifications of glutamatergic transmission induced by inflammatory pain, fear conditioning, cocaine exposure, and anoxia‐induced damage in neurons and glia. Furthermore, defective RNA editing of GluA2 can cause altered expression of CP‐AMPARs and is implicated in motor neuron damage (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) and the proliferation of cells in malignant gliomas. A number of the players involved in CP‐AMPAR regulation have been identified, providing useful insight into interventions that may prevent the aberrant CP‐AMPAR expression. Furthermore, recent molecular and pharmacological developments, particularly the discovery of TARP subtype‐selective drugs, offer the exciting potential to modify some of the harmful effects of increased CP‐AMPAR prevalence in a brain region‐specific manner., figure legend AMPARs containing GluA2 (red subunits) are Ca2+‐impermeable (CI‐AMPARs). Those that lack GluA2 are Ca2+‐permeable (CP‐AMPARs) and are implicated in diverse forms of synaptic plasticity and disease. Both native CP‐ and CI‐AMPARs contain various auxiliary subunits (shown as yellow, green or turquoise) that affect AMPAR function and play a role in the regulation of relative CP‐/CI‐AMPAR prevalence. Image based on PDB model 6NJM.

Calcium-permeable AMPA-type glutamate receptors (CP-AMPARs) contribute to many forms of synaptic plasticity and pathology. They can be distinguished from GluA2-containing calcium-impermeable AMPARs by the inward rectification of their currents, which reflects voltage-dependent block by intracellular spermine. However, the efficacy of this weakly permeant blocker is differentially altered by the presence of AMPAR auxiliary subunits – including transmembrane AMPAR regulatory proteins, cornichons and GSG1L – that are widely expressed in neurons and glia. This complicates the interpretation of rectification as a measure of CP-AMPAR expression. Here we show that inclusion of the spider toxin analogue 1-naphthylacetyl spermine (NASPM) in the intracellular recording solution results in complete block of GluA1-mediated outward currents irrespective of the type of associated auxiliary subunit. In neurons from GluA2-knockout mice expressing only CP-AMPARs, intracellular NASPM, unlike spermine, blocks all outward synaptic current. Thus, our results identify an unambiguous functional measure, sensitive solely to changes in CP-AMPAR prevalence.

The functional properties of AMPA receptors shape many of the essential features of excitatory synaptic signalling in the brain, including high-fidelity point-to-point transmission and long-term plasticity. Understanding the behaviour and regulation of single AMPAR channels is fundamental in unravelling how central synapses carry, process and store information. There is now an abundance of data on the importance of alternative splicing, RNA editing, and phosphorylation of AMPAR subunits in determining central synaptic diversity. Furthermore, auxiliary subunits have emerged as pivotal players that regulate AMPAR channel properties and add further diversity. Single-channel studies have helped reveal a fascinating picture of the unique behaviour of AMPAR channels – their concentration-dependent single-channel conductance, the basis of their multiple-conductance states, and the influence of auxiliary proteins in controlling many of their gating and conductance properties. Here we summarize basic hallmarks of AMPAR single-channels, in relation to function, diversity and plasticity. We also present data that reveal an unexpected feature of AMPAR sublevel behaviour. This article is part of the special Issue on ‘Glutamate Receptors – AMPA receptors’.

AMPA receptors (AMPARs) are tetrameric ion channels that together with other ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs), the NMDA and kainate receptors, mediate a majority of excitatory neurotransmission in the central nervous system. Whereas NMDA receptors gate channels with slow kinetics, responsible primarily for generating long-term synaptic potentiation and depression, AMPARs are the main fast transduction elements at synapses and are critical for the expression of plasticity. The kinetic and conductance properties of AMPARs are laid down during their biogenesis and are regulated by post-transcriptional RNA editing, splice variation, post-translational modification, and subunit composition. Furthermore, AMPAR assembly, trafficking, and functional heterogeneity depends on a large repertoire of auxiliary subunits-a feature that is particularly striking for this type of iGluR. Here, we discuss how the subunit structure, stoichiometry, and auxiliary subunits generate a heterogeneous plethora of receptors, each tailored to fulfill a vital role in fast synaptic signaling and plasticity.

Presynaptic ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) play important roles in the control of synaptogenesis and neurotransmitter release, yet their regulation is poorly understood. In particular, the contribution of transmembrane auxiliary proteins, which profoundly shape the trafficking and gating of somatodendritic iGluRs, is unknown. Here we examined the influence of transmembrane AMPAR regulatory proteins (TARPs) on presynaptic AMPARs in cerebellar molecular layer interneurons (MLIs). 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX), a partial agonist at TARP-associated AMPARs, enhanced spontaneous GABA release in wild-type mice but not instargazermice that lack the prototypical TARP stargazin (γ-2). These findings were replicated in mechanically dissociated Purkinje cells with functional adherent synaptic boutons, demonstrating the presynaptic locus of modulation. In dissociated Purkinje cells fromstargazermice, AMPA was able to enhance mIPSC frequency, but only in the presence of the positive allosteric modulator cyclothiazide. Thus, ordinarily, presynaptic AMPARs are unable to enhance spontaneous release without γ-2, which is required predominantly for its effects on channel gating. Presynaptic AMPARs are known to reduce action potential-driven GABA release from MLIs. Although a G-protein-dependent non-ionotropic mechanism has been suggested to underlie this inhibition, paradoxically we found that γ-2, and thus AMPAR gating, was required. Following glutamate spillover from climbing fibers or application of CNQX, evoked GABA release was reduced; instargazermice such effects were markedly attenuated in acute slices and abolished in the dissociated Purkinje cell-nerve bouton preparation. We suggest that γ-2 association, by increasing charge transfer, allows presynaptic AMPARs to depolarize the bouton membrane sufficiently to modulate both phasic and spontaneous release.

Diffuse white matter injury (DWMI), a leading cause of neurodevelopmental disabilities in preterm infants, is characterized by reduced oligodendrocyte formation. NG2-expressing oligodendrocyte precursor cells (NG2 cells) are exposed to various extrinsic regulatory signals, including the neurotransmitter GABA. We investigated GABAergic signaling to cerebellar white matter NG2 cells in a mouse model of DWMI (chronic neonatal hypoxia). We found that hypoxia caused a loss of GABAA receptor-mediated synaptic input to NG2 cells, extensive proliferation of these cells and delayed oligodendrocyte maturation, leading to dysmyelination. Treatment of control mice with a GABAA receptor antagonist or deletion of the chloride-accumulating transporter NKCC1 mimicked the effects of hypoxia. Conversely, blockade of GABA catabolism or GABA uptake reduced NG2 cell numbers and increased the formation of mature oligodendrocytes both in control and hypoxic mice. Our results indicate that GABAergic signaling regulates NG2 cell differentiation and proliferation in vivo, and suggest that its perturbation is a key factor in DWMI.

KEY POINTS: The hippocampal CA1 region is highly vulnerable to ischaemic stroke. Two forms of AMPA receptor (AMPAR) plasticity an anoxic form of long term potentiation and a delayed increase in Ca(2+) permeable (CP) AMPARs contribute to this susceptibility by increasing excitotoxicity. In CA1 the acid sensing ion channel 1a (ASIC1a) is known to facilitate LTP and contribute to ischaemic acidotoxicity. We have examined the role of ASIC1a in AMPAR ischaemic plasticity in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures exposed to oxygen glucose deprivation (a model of ischaemic stroke) and in hippocampal pyramidal neuron cultures exposed to acidosis. We find that ASIC1a activation promotes both forms of AMPAR plasticity and that neuroprotection by inhibiting ASIC1a circumvents any further benefit of blocking CP AMPARs. Our observations establish a new interaction between acidotoxicity and excitotoxicity and provide insight into the role of ASIC1a and CP AMPARs in neurodegeneration. Specifically we propose that ASIC1a activation drives certain post ischaemic forms of CP AMPAR plasticity. ABSTRACT: The CA1 region of the hippocampus is particularly vulnerable to ischaemic damage. While NMDA receptors play a major role in excitotoxicity it is thought to be exacerbated in this region by two forms of post ischaemic AMPA receptor (AMPAR) plasticity namely anoxic long term potentiation (a LTP) and a delayed increase in the prevalence of Ca(2+) permeable GluA2 lacking AMPARs (CP AMPARs). The acid sensing ion channel 1a (ASIC1a) which is expressed in CA1 pyramidal neurons is also known to contribute to post ischaemic neuronal death and to physiologically induced LTP. This raises the question does ASIC1a activation drive the post ischaemic forms of AMPAR plasticity in CA1 pyramidal neurons? We have tested this by examining organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHSCs) exposed to oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD) and dissociated cultures of hippocampal pyramidal neurons (HPNs) exposed to low pH (acidosis). We find that both a LTP and the delayed increase in the prevalence of CP AMPARs are dependent on ASIC1a activation during ischaemia. Indeed acidosis alone is sufficient to induce the increase in CP AMPARs. We also find that inhibition of ASIC1a channels circumvents any potential neuroprotective benefit arising from block of CP AMPARs. By demonstrating that ASIC1a activation contributes to post ischaemic AMPAR plasticity our results identify a functional interaction between acidotoxicity and excitotoxicity in hippocampal CA1 cells and provide insight into the role of ASIC1a and CP AMPARs as potential drug targets for neuroprotection. We thus propose that ASIC1a activation can drive certain forms of CP AMPAR plasticity and that inhibiting ASIC1a affords neuroprotection.

Juvenile Batten disease is the most common progressive neurodegenerative disorder of childhood. It is associated with mutations in the CLN3 gene, causing loss of function of CLN3 protein and degeneration of cerebellar and retinal neurons. It has been proposed that changes in granule cell AMPA-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs) contribute to the cerebellar dysfunction. In this study, we compared AMPAR properties and synaptic transmission in cerebellar granule cells from wild-type and Cln3 knock-out mice. In Cln3Δex1–6 cells, the amplitude of AMPA-evoked whole-cell currents was unchanged. Similarly, we found no change in the amplitude, kinetics, or rectification of synaptic currents evoked by individual quanta, or in their underlying single-channel conductance. We found no change in cerebellar expression of GluA2 or GluA4 protein. By contrast, we observed a reduced number of quantal events following mossy-fiber stimulation in Sr2+, altered short-term plasticity in conditions of reduced extracellular Ca2+, and reduced mossy fiber vesicle number. Thus, while our results suggest early presynaptic changes in the Cln3 Δex1–6 mouse model of juvenile Batten disease, they reveal no evidence for altered postsynaptic AMPARs.

Summary AMPA-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs) mediate fast neurotransmission at excitatory synapses. The extent and fidelity of postsynaptic depolarization triggered by AMPAR activation are shaped by AMPAR auxiliary subunits, including the transmembrane AMPAR regulatory proteins (TARPs). TARPs profoundly influence gating, an effect thought to be mediated by an interaction with the AMPAR ion channel and ligand binding domain (LBD). Here, we show that the distal N-terminal domain (NTD) contributes to TARP modulation. Alterations in the NTD-LBD linker result in TARP-dependent and TARP-selective changes in AMPAR gating. Using peptide arrays, we identify a TARP interaction region on the NTD and define the path of TARP contacts along the LBD surface. Moreover, we map key binding sites on the TARP itself and show that mutation of these residues mediates gating modulation. Our data reveal a TARP-dependent allosteric role for the AMPAR NTD and suggest that TARP binding triggers a drastic reorganization of the AMPAR complex., Graphical Abstract, Highlights • The NTD linker has a TARP-dependent and TARP-specific impact on AMPAR gating • Peptide arrays reveal binding of TARPs to both extracellular domains of AMPARs • A structural reorganization of AMPARs is triggered by TARP binding, Gating properties of synaptic AMPA-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs) are modulated by the transmembrane AMPAR regulatory proteins (TARPs), yet knowledge about their binding on a molecular level is limited. Here, Cais et al. map this interaction on both partner molecules and reveal a functional role for the receptor N-terminal domain.

Dynamic regulation of calcium-permeable AMPA receptors (CP-AMPARs) is important for normal synaptic transmission, plasticity and pathological changes. Although the involvement of transmembrane AMPAR regulatory proteins (TARPs) in trafficking of calcium-impermeable AMPARs (CI-AMPARs) has been extensively studied, their role in the surface expression and function of CP-AMPARs remains unclear. We examined AMPAR-mediated currents in cerebellar stellate cells from stargazer mice, which lack the prototypical TARP stargazin (g-2). We found a marked increase in the contribution of CP-AMPARs to synaptic responses, indicating that, unlike CI-AMPARs, these can localize at synapses in the absence of g-2. In contrast with CP-AMPARs in extrasynaptic regions, synaptic CP-AMPARs displayed an unexpectedly low channel conductance and strong block by intracellular spermine, suggesting that they were ‘TARPless’. As a proof of principle that TARP association is not an absolute requirement for AMPAR clustering at synapses, miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents mediated by TARPless AMPARs were readily detected in stargazer granule cells following knockdown of their only other TARP, g-7.

The properties of synaptic AMPA receptors (AMPARs) depend on their subunit composition and association with transmembrane AMPAR regulatory proteins (TARPs). Although both GluA2 incorporation and TARP association have been shown to influence AMPAR channel conductance, the manner in which different TARPs modulate the mean channel conductance of GluA2-containing AMPARs is unknown. Using ultrafast agonist application and nonstationary fluctuation analysis, we found that TARP subtypes differentially increase the mean channel conductance, but not the peak open probability, of recombinant GluA2-containing AMPARs. TARP γ-8, in particular, enhances mean channel conductance to a greater degree than γ-2, γ-3, or γ-4. We then examined the action of a use-dependent antagonist of GluA2-containing AMPARs, philanthotoxin-74 (PhTx-74), on recombinant AMPARs and on GluA2-containing AMPARs in cerebellar granule neurons fromstargazermice transfected with TARPs. We found that the rate and extent of channel block varies with TARP subtype, in a manner that correlates linearly with mean channel conductance. Furthermore, block of GluA2-containing AMPARs by polyamine toxins varied depending on whether channels were activated by the full agonist glutamate or the partial agonist kainate, consistent with conductance state-dependent block. Block of GluA2-lacking AMPARs by PhTx-433 is also modulated by TARP association and is a function of agonist efficacy. Our data indicate that channel block by polyamine toxins is sensitive to the mean channel conductance of AMPARs, which varies with TARP subtype and agonist efficacy. Furthermore, our results illustrate the utility of polyamine toxins as sensitive probes of AMPAR channel conductance and suggest the possibility that TARPs may influence their channel properties by selectively stabilizing specific channel conformations, rather than altering the pore structure.

Heterogeneity among AMPA receptor (AMPAR) subtypes is thought to be one of the key postsynaptic factors giving rise to diversity in excitatory synaptic signaling in the CNS. Recently, compelling evidence has emerged that ancillary AMPAR subunits—the so-called transmembrane AMPA receptor regulatory proteins (TARPs)—also play a vital role in influencing the variety of postsynaptic signaling. This TARP family of molecules controls both trafficking and functional properties of AMPARs at most, if not all, excitatory central synapses. Furthermore, individual TARPs differ in their effects on the biophysical and pharmacological properties of AMPARs. The critical importance of TARPs in synaptic transmission was first revealed in experiments on cerebellar granule cells from stargazer mice. These lack the prototypic TARP stargazin, present in granule cells from wild-type animals, and consequently lack synaptic transmission at the mossy fibre-to-granule cell synapse. Subsequent work has identified many other members of the stargazin family which act as functional TARPs. It has also provided valuable information about specific TARPs present in many central neurons. Because much of the initial work on TARPs was carried out on stargazer granule cells, the important functional properties of TARPs present throughout the cerebellum have received particular attention. Here we discuss some of these recent findings in relation to the main TARPs and the AMPAR subunits identified in cerebellar neurons and glia.

Among principal neurons, adult Purkinje cells have long been considered unusual in lacking functional NMDA receptors. This view has emerged largely from studies on rats, where NMDA receptors are expressed in Purkinje cells of newborn animals, but are lost after 2 weeks. By contrast, immunolabelling data have shown that Purkinje cells from adult mice express multiple NMDA receptor subunits, suggesting a possible species difference. To investigate the presence of functional NMDA receptors in Purkinje cells of mice, and to explore the contribution of different receptor subunits, we made whole-cell and single-channel patch-clamp recordings from Purkinje cells of wild-type and NR2D−/− mice of different ages. Here we report that multiple NMDA receptor subtypes are indeed expressed in Purkinje cells of young and adult mice; in the adult, both NR2A- and NR2B-containing subtypes are present. Furthermore, we show that NMDA receptor-mediated EPSCs can be evoked by climbing fibre stimulation, and appear to be mediated mainly by NR2A-containing receptors.

Endogenous polyamines profoundly affect the activity of various ion channels, including that of calcium-permeable AMPA-type glutamate receptors (CP-AMPARs). Here we show that stargazin, a transmembrane AMPAR regulatory protein (TARP) known to influence transport, gating and desensitization of AMPARs, greatly reduces block of CP-AMPARs by intracellular polyamines. By decreasing CP-AMPAR affinity for cytoplasmic polyamines, stargazin enhances the charge transfer following single glutamate applications and eliminates the frequency-dependent facilitation seen with repeated applications. In cerebellar stellate cells, which express both synaptic CP-AMPARs and stargazin, we found that the rectification and unitary conductance of channels underlying excitatory postsynaptic currents were matched by those of recombinant AMPARs only when the latter were associated with stargazin. Taken together, our observations establish modulatory actions of stargazin that are specific to CP-AMPARs, and suggest that during synaptic transmission the activity of such receptors, and thus calcium influx, is fundamentally changed by TARPs.

The behaviour of AMPA-type glutamate receptor (AMPAR) channels is crucial in determining properties of synaptic transmission at a majority of excitatory synapses in the brain. In addition, there is compelling evidence that a change in AMPAR excitability plays a key role in the expression of certain forms of synaptic plasticity. The best characterized form of plasticity at central synapses is long-term potentiation (LTP) in hippocampal CA1 cells (Bliss & Collingridge, 1993; Bear, 1999; Malenka & Nicoll, 1999). Non-stationary noise analysis of the EPSC in these cells has revealed a detectable increase in the synaptic channel conductance following LTP induction (Benke et al. 1998; Benke et al. 2001). Since AMPARs with different subunit compositions display marked variation in their basic channel properties (Mosbacher et al. 1994; Swanson et al. 1997), the increased channel conductance would be consistent with evidence demonstrating that LTP/LTD (long-term depression) involves activity-dependent control of AMPAR trafficking, and consequent change of AMPAR subtype (Shi et al. 2001; Piccini & Malinow, 2002; Bredt & Nicoll, 2003; Collingridge et al. 2004; Terashima et al. 2004). Further, the change in AMPAR phosphorylation that occurs during LTP (Barria et al. 1997) may also be expected to modulate single-channel conductance and open probability (Derkach et al. 1999; Banke et al. 2000; but see Oh & Derkach, 2005). Thus, while a number of interrelated mechanisms may underlie enhancement of AMPAR responsiveness, it seems clear that functional modification of AMPAR channel properties is crucial to this process. A great deal is known about subunit expression (Ritter et al. 2002) and macroscopic characteristics of non-NMDA receptors in hippocampal CA1 cells (Jonas & Sakmann, 1992; Spruston et al. 1995; Bureau et al. 1999; Banke et al. 2000; Benke et al. 2001; Shi et al. 2001; Andrasfalvy et al. 2003). However, the single-channel properties of AMPA and kainate receptors have received much less attention. Because of this, it has been difficult to relate functional changes in the synaptic current with single-channel behaviour in these cells. For example, although the synaptic channel conductance has been estimated (Benke et al. 1998; Benke et al. 2001), it is unclear whether the values obtained match the directly observed single-channel openings. This is a significant consideration since such openings could arise from a homogeneous population of receptor channels, or a highly mixed population. The presence of a mixed channel population (Cull-Candy et al. 1988; Swanson et al. 1996) could profoundly influence any estimate of channel conductance, and complicate the interpretation of the increased channel conductance observed during LTP induction. For example, downregulation of a low-conductance channel within a mixed population, would yield an apparent increase in weighted mean channel conductance estimated from non-stationary noise analysis. From previous studies on individual AMPA and kainate receptor channels in other systems, it was expected that non-NMDARs would display fast channel kinetics with small multiple conductance openings between 0.2 and 25 pS, depending on their subunit composition (Cull-Candy & Usowicz, 1987; Jahr & Stevens, 1987; Swanson et al. 1996; Swanson et al. 1997; Banke et al. 2000; Smith & Howe, 2000; Jin et al. 2003; Oh & Derkach, 2005). While the majority of fast synaptic transmission in the CNS is mediated by AMPARs, kainate receptors can contribute to excitatory postsynaptic currents at certain synapses, and can also participate in modulating synaptic transmission through their presence in the nerve terminal (Frerking & Nicoll, 2000; Lerma et al. 2001). In the present experiments it was also of interest, and necessary, to characterize events arising from kainate receptors, to allow an unequivocal distinction between different non-NMDAR channels. AMPA and kainate receptors are often composed of heteromeric assemblies of subunits arising from multiple genes. Hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurones are known to express mRNA for all four AMPAR subunits (Hollmann & Heinemann, 1994; Monyer et al. 1999). Furthermore, both flip and flop subunit variants are represented in CA1 pyramidal cells, although flop isoforms may tend to predominate at the age we have examined (Bahn & Wisden et al. 2000). Potentially, this could give rise to a considerable variety of AMPAR subtypes. However, at this age the two main AMPAR populations in these cells are likely to be composed of GluR1/GluR2 and GluR2/GluR3 subunit assemblies (Wenthold et al. 1996). Further, it has been demonstrated that GluR6 and KA2 kainate receptor subunits are also expressed in these cells; if others are present they occur at very low level (Wisden & Seeburg, 1993b; Bettler et al. 1992; Herb et al. 1992; Bureau et al. 1999). Kainate receptors in CA1 pyramidal cells could therefore function as homomeric GluR6 assemblies, which would be activated by kainate but not AMPA (see Herb et al. 1992) – or as a heteromeric combination of GluR6/KA2, which would respond to both agonists. The fast component of the EPSC in these cells appears to be mediated entirely by AMPARs, with no contribution from postsynaptic kainate receptors (Frerking et al. 1998). Furthermore, previous studies on macroscopic receptor currents have found that glutamate application onto membrane patches of CA1 cells activates predominantly AMPARs (Spruston et al. 1995). Here we have compared functional properties of single AMPA and kainate receptor channels, and demonstrated that their conductance and kinetic properties are agonist concentration dependent in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurones. These findings have implications for the interpretation of changes in EPSC properties associated with LTP induction.

At many excitatory and inhibitory synapses throughout the nervous system, postsynaptic currents become faster as the synapse matures, primarily owing to changes in receptor subunit composition. The origin of the developmental acceleration of AMPA receptor (AMPAR)-mediated excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) remains elusive. We used patch-clamp recordings, electron microscopic immunogold localization of AMPARs, partial three-dimensional reconstruction of the neuropil and numerical simulations of glutamate diffusion and AMPAR activation to examine the factors underlying the developmental speeding of miniature EPSCs in mouse cerebellar granule cells. We found that the main developmental change that permits submillisecond transmission at mature synapses is an alteration in the glutamate concentration waveform as experienced by AMPARs. This can be accounted for by changes in the synaptic structure and surrounding neuropil, rather than by a change in AMPAR properties. Our findings raise the possibility that structural alterations could be a general mechanism underlying the change in the time course of AMPAR-mediated synaptic transmission.

At many excitatory central synapses, activity produces a lasting change in the synaptic response by modifying postsynaptic AMPA receptors (AMPARs). Although much is known about proteins involved in the trafficking of Ca2+-impermeable (GluR2-containing) AMPARs, little is known about protein partners that regulate subunit trafficking and plasticity of Ca2+-permeable (GluR2-lacking) AMPARs. At cerebellar parallel fiber-stellate cell synapses, activity triggers a novel type of plasticity: Ca2+ influx through GluR2-lacking synaptic AMPARs drives incorporation of GluR2-containing AMPARs, generating rapid, lasting changes in excitatory postsynaptic current properties. Here we examine how glutamate receptor interacting protein (GRIP, also known as AMPAR binding protein or ABP) and protein interacting with C-kinase-1 (PICK) regulate subunit trafficking and plasticity. We find that repetitive synaptic activity triggers loss of synaptic GluR2-lacking AMPARs by selectively disrupting their interaction with GRIP and that PICK drives activity-dependent delivery of GluR2-containing receptors. This dynamic regulation of AMPARs provides a feedback mechanism for controlling Ca2+ permeability of synaptic receptors.

The timing of action potentials is an important determinant of information coding in the brain. The shape of the EPSP has a key influence on the temporal precision of spike generation. Here we use dynamic clamp recording and passive neuronal models to study how developmental changes in synaptic conductance waveform and intrinsic membrane properties combine to affect the EPSP and action potential generation in cerebellar granule cells. We recorded EPSCs at newly formed and mature mossy fiber–granule cell synapses. Both quantal and evoked currents showed a marked speeding of the AMPA receptor-mediated component. We also found evidence for age- and activity-dependent changes in the involvement of NMDA receptors. Although AMPA and NMDA receptors contributed to quantal EPSCs at immature synapses, multiquantal release was required to activate NMDA receptors at mature synapses, suggesting a developmental redistribution of NMDA receptors. These changes in the synaptic conductance waveform result in a faster rising EPSP and reduced spike latency in mature granule cells. Mature granule cells also have a significantly decreased input resistance, contributing to a faster decaying EPSP and a reduced spike jitter. We suggest that these concurrent developmental changes, which increase the temporal precision of EPSP-spike coupling, will increase the fidelity with which sensory information is processed within the input layer of the cerebellar cortex.

NMDA receptors (NMDARs) are thought to be tetrameric assemblies composed of NR1 and at least one type of NR2 subunit. The identity of the NR2 subunit (NR2A, -B, -C, -D) is critical in determining many of the functional properties of the receptor, such as channel conductance and deactivation time. Further diversity may arise from coassembly of more than one type of NR2 subunit, if the resulting triheteromeric assembly (NR1 plus two types of NR2) displays distinct functional properties. We have used gene-ablated mice (NR2D -/-) to examine the effects of the NR2D subunit on NMDAR channels and NMDAR EPSCs in cerebellar Golgi cells. These cells are thought to express both NR2B and NR2D subunits, a combination that occurs widely in the developing nervous system. Our experiments provide direct evidence that the low conductance NMDAR channels in Golgi cells arise from diheteromeric NR1/NR2D assemblies. To investigate whether a functionally distinct triheteromeric assembly was also expressed, we analyzed the kinetic and pharmacological properties of single-channel currents in isolated extrasynaptic patches. We found that after the loss of the NR2D subunit, the properties of the 50 pS NMDAR channels were altered. This result is consistent with the presence of a triheteromeric assembly (NR1/NR2B/NR2D) in cells from wild-type mice. However, we could find no difference in the properties of NMDAR-mediated EPSCs between wild-type and NR2D subunit ablated mice. Our experiments suggest that although both diheteromeric and triheteromeric NR2D-containing receptors are expressed in cerebellar Golgi cells, neither receptor type participates in parallel fiber to Golgi cell synaptic transmission. The presence of the NR2D subunit within an assembly may therefore result in its restriction to extrasynaptic sites.

We aimed to estimate the number of AMPA receptors (AMPARs) bound by the quantal transmitter packet, their single-channel conductance and their density in the postsynaptic membrane at cerebellar Purkinje cell synapses. The synaptic and extrasynaptic AMPARs were examined in Purkinje cells in 2- to 4-day-old rats, when they receive synaptic inputs solely from climbing fibres (CFs). Evoked CF EPSCs and whole-cell AMPA currents displayed roughly linear current-voltage relationships, consistent with the presence of GluR2 subunits in synaptic and extrasynaptic AMPARs. The mean quantal size, estimated from the miniature EPSCs (MEPSCs), was approximately 300 pS. Peak-scaled non-stationary fluctuation analysis of spontaneous EPSCs and MEPSCs gave a weighted-mean synaptic channel conductance of approximately 5 pS (approximately 7 pS when corrected for filtering). By applying non-stationary fluctuation analysis to extrasynaptic currents activated by brief glutamate pulses (5 mM), we also obtained a small single-channel conductance estimate for extrasynaptic AMPARs (approximately 11 pS). This approach allowed us to obtain a maximum open probability (Po,max) value for the extrasynaptic receptors (Po,max = 0.72). Directly resolved extrasynaptic channel openings in the continued presence of glutamate exhibited clear multiple-conductance levels. The mean area of the postsynaptic density (PSD) of these synapses was 0.074 microm2, measured by reconstructing electron-microscopic (EM) serial sections. Postembedding immunogold labelling by anti-GluR2/3 antibody revealed that AMPARs are localised in PSDs. From these data and by simulating error factors, we estimate that at least 66 AMPARs are bound by a quantal transmitter packet at CF-Purkinje cell synapses, and the receptors are packed at a minimum density of approximately 900 microm-2 in the postsynaptic membrane.

We have identified an excitatory synapse in cerebellar molecular layer interneurons at which the level of presynaptic activity determines the receptor type involved in the postsynaptic response. When small numbers of parallel fibers are activated, EPSCs are mediated solely by AMPA receptors (AMPARs), despite our finding that NMDA receptors (NMDARs) are present in the dendrites of these cells. The EPSC kinetics are fast (tau decay = 0.82 +/- 0.05 msec at room temperature), consistent with the role these interneurons are thought to play in precisely timed inhibitory control of Purkinje cells. NMDARs are activated only when glutamate release is increased either by facilitation with brief high-frequency trains or by recruiting more presynaptic fibers with higher stimulus intensities. Under these conditions, EPSCs consist of a fast-rising AMPAR-mediated current followed by a slow component mediated by both NMDARs and AMPARs. Inhibitors of glutamate transport increase the amplitude and prolong the time course of the compound EPSCs. In contrast, the properties of fast AMPAR EPSCs resulting from the activation of few inputs remain unchanged when glutamate uptake is blocked. Our results suggest that, at these synapses, the postsynaptic density contains AMPARs alone. It is only when transmitter release is high enough for glutamate to diffuse to the extrasynaptic space and to reach concentrations sufficient to activate extrasynaptic receptors that NMDARs are involved in the postsynaptic response. We suggest that such a spatial separation of receptor types may provide a mechanism for rapid changes in EPSC properties, depending on the amount of synaptic activity.

GABAA receptor-mediated inhibitory synaptic transmission within the CNS is often studied in the presence of glutamate receptor antagonists. However, for nearly a decade it has been known that, in the hippocampus, one of the most commonly used α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)/kainate receptor antagonists, 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX), can increase the frequency of spontaneous GABAA receptor-mediated postsynaptic currents (sIPSCs). In the present study we examined the effect of CNQX and related compounds on GABA-mediated synaptic transmission in the cerebellum. At various stages of development, low concentrations of CNQX increased the frequency of sIPSCs recorded from granule cells. This effect was independent of the blocking action of CNQX on ionotropic glutamate receptors, as it was not observed with the broad-spectrum glutamate receptor antagonist kynurenate. No increase in sIPSC frequency was observed with the NMDA receptor antagonists d -AP5 or 7-ClK, the selective AMPA receptor antagonists GYKI 52466 or GYKI 53655, or the kainate receptor antagonist NS-102. In contrast, two other quinoxaline derivatives, NBQX and DNQX, were capable of increasing sIPSC frequency. These results demonstrate that the novel excitatory action of CNQX, unrelated to blockade of ionotropic glutamate receptors, is not restricted to the hippocampus and can be observed with structurally related compounds.

Many neurons receive a continuous, or 'tonic', synaptic input, which increases their membrane conductance, and so modifies the spatial and temporal integration of excitatory signals. In cerebellar granule cells, although the frequency of inhibitory synaptic currents is relatively low, the spillover of synaptically released GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) gives rise to a persistent conductance mediated by the GABA A receptor that also modifies the excitability of granule cells. Here we show that this tonic conductance is absent in granule cells that lack the alpha6 and delta-subunits of the GABAA receptor. The response of these granule cells to excitatory synaptic input remains unaltered, owing to an increase in a 'leak' conductance, which is present at rest, with properties characteristic of the two-pore-domain K+ channel TASK-1 (refs 9,10,11,12). Our results highlight the importance of tonic inhibition mediated by GABAA receptors, loss of which triggers a form of homeostatic plasticity leading to a change in the magnitude of a voltage-independent K + conductance that maintains normal neuronal behaviour.

Neurons in the brain can alter their responsiveness to signals from other neurons, a flexibility that contributes to the richness of neuronal communication and underlies the fundamental processes of information transfer, learning, and memory. The most important receptive elements that allow neurons to “listen” to one another are ligand-gated transmembrane ion channels, and those that enable fast excitatory communication belong to the AMPA receptor subtype. When the neurotransmitter glutamate is released from a presynaptic neuron, it activates postsynaptic AMPA receptors, allowing cations to enter, causing depolarization that triggers an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron. On page 1518 of this issue, von Engelhardt et al. ( 1 ) use a proteomic approach to identify an auxiliary protein that regulates AMPA receptor activity.

We have examined the deactivation kinetics of native N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) containing NR1 and NR2D subunits by patch-clamp recording from Purkinje cells in cerebellar slices from young rats. NMDAR-mediated whole-cell currents were elicited in response to bath application of 20 microM NMDA and 50 microM glycine. The NMDAR-mediated currents were small, with an average whole-cell conductance of approximately 750 pS. Following the rapid application of brief pulses (1-10 ms) of 1 mM glutamate to outside-out membrane patches, we observed a low-conductance type of single-channel activity which lasted up to 30 s after the removal of agonist. Analysis of individual channel openings revealed asymmetry of transitions between the main- and subconductance states - a characteristic of NR1/NR2D-containing NMDARs. The averaged macroscopic current exhibited a decay time course which was well described by a single exponential function with a time constant of approximately 3 s. We conclude that native NR1/NR2D-containing NMDARs, like their recombinant counterparts, display very slow deactivation kinetics. This feature should provide a means for identification of these receptors at synapses, and indicates that they do not contribute to the synaptic NMDAR currents so far described.

Activity-dependent change in the efficacy of transmission is a basic feature of many excitatory synapses in the central nervous system. The best understood postsynaptic modification involves a change in responsiveness of AMPAR (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid receptor)-mediated currents following activation of NMDA ( N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptors1,2 or Ca2+-permeable AMPARs3,4,5,6. This process is thought to involve alteration in the number and phosphorylation state of postsynaptic AMPARs2. Here we describe a new form of synaptic plasticity—a rapid and lasting change in the subunit composition and Ca2+ permeability of AMPARs at cerebellar stellate cell synapses following synaptic activity. AMPARs lacking the edited GluR2 subunit not only exhibit high Ca2+ permeability7 but also are blocked by intracellular polyamines8,9,10,11. These properties have allowed us to follow directly the involvement of GluR2 subunits in synaptic transmission. Repetitive synaptic activation of Ca2+-permeable AMPARs causes a rapid reduction in Ca2+ permeability and a change in the amplitude of excitatory postsynaptic currents, owing to the incorporation of GluR2-containing AMPARs. Our experiments show that activity-induced Ca2+ influx through GluR2-lacking AMPARs controls the targeting of GluR2-containing AMPARs, implying the presence of a self-regulating mechanism.

1. To investigate the properties of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) in cerebellar Golgi cells, patch-clamp recordings were made in cerebellar slices from postnatal day 14 (P14) rats. To verify cell identity, cells were filled with Neurobiotin and examined using confocal microscopy. 2. The NR2B subunit-selective NMDAR antagonist ifenprodil (10 microM) reduced whole-cell NMDA-evoked currents by approximately 80 %. The NMDA-evoked currents were unaffected by the Zn2+ chelator N,N,N',N'-tetrakis-(2-pyridylmethyl)-ethylenediamine (TPEN; 1 microM) suggesting the absence of NMDARs containing NR2A subunits. 3. Outside-out patches from Golgi cells exhibited a population of 'high-conductance' 50 pS NMDAR openings. These were inhibited by ifenprodil, with an IC50 of 19 nM. 4. Patches from these cells also contained 'low-conductance' NMDAR channels, with features characteristic of NR2D subunit-containing receptors. These exhibited a main conductance of 39 pS, with a sub-conductance level of 19 pS, with clear asymmetry of transitions between the two levels. As expected of NR2D-containing receptors, these events were not affected by ifenprodil. 5. The NMDAR-mediated component of EPSCs, evoked by parallel fibre stimulation or occurring spontaneously, was not affected by 1 microM TPEN. However, it was reduced (by approximately 60 %) in the presence of 10 microM ifenprodil, to leave a residual NMDAR-mediated current that exhibited fast decay kinetics. This is, therefore, unlikely to have arisen from receptors composed of NR1/NR2D subunits. 6. We conclude that in cerebellar Golgi cells, the high- and low-conductance NMDAR channels arise from NR2B- and NR2D-containing receptors, respectively. We found no evidence for NR2A-containing receptors in these cells. While NR2B-containing receptors are present in both the synaptic and extrasynaptic membrane, our results indicate that NR1/NR2D receptors do not contribute to the EPSC and appear to be restricted to the extrasynaptic membrane.

Copyright © 2015 by The American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. In this Perspective, former and current editors of Molecular Pharmacology, together with the guest editors for this 50th Anniversary Issue, provide a historical overview of the journal since its founding in 1965. The substantial impact that Molecular Pharmacology has had on the field of pharmacology as well as on biomedical science is discussed, as is the broad scope of the journal. The authors conclude that, true to the original goals for the journal, Molecular Pharmacology today remains an outstanding venue for work that provides a mechanistic understanding of drugs, molecular probes, and their biologic targets.

In many neurons, responses to individual quanta of transmitter exhibit large variations in amplitude. The origin of this variability, although central to our understanding of synaptic transmission and plasticity, remains controversial. To examine the relationship between quantal amplitude and postsynaptic receptor number, we adopted a novel approach, combining patch-clamp recording of synaptic currents with quantitative immunogold localization of synaptic receptors. Here, we report that in cerebellar stellate cells, where variability in GABA miniature synaptic currents is particularly marked, the distribution of quantal amplitudes parallels that of synaptic GABAA receptor number. We also show that postsynaptic GABAA receptor density is uniform, allowing synaptic area to be used as a measure of relative receptor content. Flurazepam, which increases GABAA receptor affinity, prolongs the decay of all miniature currents but selectively increases the amplitude of large events. From this differential effect, we show that a quantum of GABA saturates postsynaptic receptors when

Non-NMDA glutamate receptor subunits of the AMPA-preferring subfamily combine to form ion channels with heterogeneous functional properties. We have investigated the effects of RNA editing at the Q/R site, splice variation of the “flip/flop” cassette, and multimeric subunit assembly on the single-channel conductance and kinetic properties of the recombinant AMPA receptors formed from GluR2 and GluR4 expressed in HEK 293 cells. We found that AMPA receptor single-channel conductance was dependent on the Q/R site editing state of the subunits comprising the channel. Calcium-permeable (unedited) channels had resolvable single-channel events with main conductance states of 7–8 pS, whereas fully edited GluR2 channels had very low conductances of ∼300 fS (estimated from noise analysis). Additionally, the flip splice variant of GluR4 conferred agonist-dependent conductance properties reminiscent of those found for a subset of AMPA receptors in cultured cerebellar granule cells. These results provide a description of the single-channel properties of certain recombinant AMPA receptors and suggest that the single-channel conductance may be determined by the expression of edited GluR2 subunits in neurons.

Regulation of calcium-permeable AMPA receptors (CP-AMPARs) is crucial in normal synaptic function and neurological disease states. Although transmembrane AMPAR regulatory proteins (TARPs) such as stargazin (γ-2) modulate the properties of calcium-impermeable AMPARs (CI-AMPARs) and promote their synaptic targeting, the TARP-specific rules governing CP-AMPAR synaptic trafficking remain unclear. We used RNA interference to manipulate AMPAR-subunit and TARP expression in γ-2-lacking stargazer cerebellar granule cells--the classic model of TARP deficiency. We found that TARP γ-7 selectively enhanced the synaptic expression of CP-AMPARs and suppressed CI-AMPARs, identifying a pivotal role of γ-7 in regulating the prevalence of CP-AMPARs. In the absence of associated TARPs, both CP-AMPARs and CI-AMPARs were able to localize to synapses and mediate transmission, although their properties were altered. Our results also establish that TARPed synaptic receptors in granule cells require both γ-2 and γ-7 and reveal an unexpected basis for the loss of AMPAR-mediated transmission in stargazer mice.

The inclusion of GluA2 subunits has a profound impact on the channel properties of AMPA receptors (AMPARs), in particular rendering them impermeable to calcium. While GluA2-containing AMPARs are the most abundant in the central nervous system, GluA2-lacking calcium-permeable AMPARs are also expressed in wide variety of neurons and glia. Accumulating evidence suggests that the dynamic control of the GluA2 content of AMPARs plays a critical role in development, synaptic plasticity, and diverse neurological conditions ranging from ischemia-induced brain damage to drug addiction. It is thus important to understand the molecular mechanisms involved in regulating the balance of AMPAR subtypes, particularly the role of their co-assembled auxiliary subunits. The discovery of transmembrane AMPAR regulatory proteins (TARPs), initially within the cerebellum, has transformed the field of AMPAR research. It is now clear that these auxiliary subunits play a key role in multiple aspects of AMPAR trafficking and function in the brain. Yet, their precise role in AMPAR subtype-specific regulation has only recently received particular attention. Here we review recent findings on the differential regulation of calcium-permeable (CP-) and -impermeable (CI-) AMPARs in cerebellar neurons and glial cells, and discuss the critical involvement of TARPs in this process. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled ‘Glutamate Receptor-Dependent Synaptic Plasticity’., Highlights • Calcium-permeable AMPARs are present in various cerebellar neurons and glial cells. • The contribution of calcium-permeable AMPARs to transmission is dynamically regulated. • TARPs influence the relative expression of AMPAR subtypes. • Evidence suggests that TARPs play a role in calcium-permeable AMPAR plasticity.

1. Whole-cell recordings were made from cerebellar granule cells cultured in high-K+ medium to induce expression of Ca(2+)-permeable AMPA receptors. Current-voltage (I-V) plots of agonist-evoked responses showed varying degrees of inward rectification, but became linear within 5-10 min. 2. Recombinant Ca(2+)-permeable kainate receptors, composed of GluR6(Q)/KA-2 subunits, exhibited rectifying whole-cell I-V plots that became linear in outside-out patches. 3. Loss of rectification in granule cells was prevented by including 100 microM spermine in the pipette; the degree of rectification was then correlated with Ca2+ permeability. 4. Spermine also prevented loss of rectification in patches containing GluR6(Q)/KA-2 receptors (IC50, 1.7 microM). 5. We suggest that spermine, or a similar cellular constituent, may act as a cytoplasmic factor conferring inward rectification on Ca(2+)-permeable non-NMDA receptors, and that 'washout' of this factor underlies the observed loss of rectification.

Ionotropic glutamate receptors, which underlie a majority of excitatory synaptic transmission in the CNS, associate with transmembrane proteins that modify their intracellular trafficking and channel gating. For AMPA-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs), significant advances have been made in our understanding of their regulation by transmembrane AMPAR regulatory proteins (TARPs). Less is known about the functional influence of cornichons – unrelated AMPAR-interacting proteins, identified by proteomic analysis. Here we confirm that cornichon homologs 2 and 3 (CNIH-2 and CNIH-3), but not CNIH-1, slow the deactivation and desensitization of both GluA2-containing calcium-impermeable (CI-) and GluA2-lacking calcium-permeable (CP-) AMPARs expressed in tsA201 cells. CNIH-2 and -3 also enhanced the glutamate sensitivity, single-channel conductance and calcium permeability of CP-AMPARs, while decreasing their block by intracellular polyamines. We examined the potential effects of CNIHs on native AMPARs by recording from rat optic nerve oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), known to express a significant population of CP-AMPARs. These glial cells exhibited surface labelling with an anti-CNIH-2/3 antibody. Two features of their AMPAR-mediated currents – the relative efficacy of the partial agonist kainate (IKA/IGlu ratio 0.4), and a greater than five-fold potentiation of kainate responses by cyclothiazide – suggest AMPAR association with CNIHs. Additionally, overexpression of CNIH-3 in OPCs markedly slowed AMPAR desensitization. Together, our experiments support the view that CNIHs are capable of altering key properties of AMPARs and suggest that they may do so in glia.

In the cerebellum, NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptors play an important role in neuronal differentiation and excitatory synaptic transmission. During early cerebellar development, marked changes occur in the distribution of messenger RNAs encoding various NMDA-receptor subunits. To determine whether these changes result in the appearance of functionally distinct NMDA receptors, we have recorded single-channel currents in rat cerebellar granule cells during the period of their migration from the external germinal layer to the inner granular layer. Here we show that before synapse formation, pre-migratory and migrating granule cells express NMDA receptors possessing single-channel properties similar to those previously described for many central neurons. In contrast, mature post-migratory cells also express an atypical form of NMDA receptor that has a lower single-channel conductance and distinct kinetic behaviour. The properties of these 'low-conductance' channels correspond to those described for recombinant NMDA receptors formed by coexpression of NR1 and NR2C subunits. The NR2C subunit appears postnatally and is found predominantly in the adult cerebellum. Our data demonstrate developmental changes in NMDA-receptor properties at the single-channel level, and suggest that in the cerebellum the expression of a specific subunit protein results in a distinct form of native receptor.

1. Patch-clamp recording methods have been used to compare the pharmacological properties and single-channel characteristics of non-NMDA receptor channels in cerebellar type-2 astrocytes and granule cells. 2. In type-2 astrocytes whole-cell concentration-response curves for glutamate, quisqualate, AMPA and kainate gave EC50 values of 5.8, 3.8, 7.6 and 160 microM and Hill slopes of 1.65, 1.18, 1.64 and 1.65, respectively, resembling estimates for granule cell receptors. 3. The non-NMDA receptor antagonists CNQX and diCl-HQC (see Methods) inhibited whole-cell kainate currents in both cell types. The IC50 for CNQX antagonism of the kainate response was 536 nM in type-2 astrocytes, and 500 nM in granule cells. The IC50 for diCl-HQC was 3.5 microM in astrocytes and 3.7 microM in granule cells. 4. CNQX acted as a competitive antagonist of whole-cell kainate responses in type-2 astrocytes and granule cells giving Schild plots with a slope near 1. The equilibrium constant, K, for CNQX binding was 524 nM in astrocytes and 489 nM in granule cells. 5. Quisqualate and AMPA responses showed rapid desensitization in type-2 astrocytes with a ratio of steady-state to peak response of 0.09. Concanavalin A reduced this desensitization. 6. Non-NMDA channels in type-2 astrocytes and granule cells showed a low permeability to Ca2+ ions with a reversal potential, for kainate-activated whole-cell currents in isotonic Ca2+, of approximately -25 mV for astrocytes and -45 mV for granule cells. 7. Outside-out patches from type-2 astrocytes exhibited a range of single-channel conductances that were superficially similar to the glutamate-activated conductances in granule cells. However, the type-2 astrocytes were devoid of NMDA receptors, hence all of these conductances originated from non-NMDA channels. Their slope conductances were approximately 11, 21, 32, 42 and 52 pS. Amplitudes were verified with mean low-variance plots and single-channel current-voltage curves, which were linear. 8. There was also evidence of lower conductance kainate-activated channels in astrocyte patches. From noise analysis their estimated mean conductance was 1.9 pS, as described for the 'low-conductance' type kainate responses in cerebellar neurones. 9. Apparent open times, shut times and burst lengths of AMPA-activated (3-10 microM) channels were examined in patches from type-2 astrocytes, and kinetic properties of the 40 and 50 pS levels were compared with the lower levels. 10. Our results indicate some marked pharmacological similarities between non-NMDA receptor channels in type-2 astrocytes and granule cells.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), a major glial cell type that gives rise to myelinating oligodendrocytes in the CNS, express calcium-permeable AMPA receptors (CP-AMPARs). Although CP-AMPARs are important for OPC proliferation and neuron-glia signaling, they render OPCs susceptible to ischemic damage in early development. We identified factors controlling the dynamic regulation of AMPAR subtypes in OPCs from rat optic nerve and mouse cerebellar cortex. We found that activation of group 1 mGluRs drove an increase in the proportion of CP-AMPARs, reflected by an increase in single-channel conductance and inward rectification. This plasticity required the elevation of intracellular calcium and used PI3K, PICK-1 and the JNK pathway. In white matter, neurons and astrocytes release both ATP and glutamate. Unexpectedly, activation of purinergic receptors in OPCs decreased CP-AMPAR expression, suggesting a capacity for homeostatic regulation. Finally, we found that stargazin-related transmembrane AMPAR regulatory proteins, which are critical for AMPAR surface expression in neurons, regulate CP-AMPAR plasticity in OPCs.

Fast excitatory synaptic transmission in the brain is mediated mainly by AMPA receptors (AMPARs). AMPAR subunits associate with auxiliary transmembrane AMPAR regulatory proteins (TARPs) that have well established roles in modulating AMPAR trafficking, kinetics, and pharmacology. It has recently been proposed that the trafficking and kinetics of native AMPARs are also modulated by members of the cornichon family of proteins (Schwenk et al, 2009). There is also recent evidence that cornichons act only as intracellular trafficking chaperones for AMPARs in neurons (Shi et al, 2010). To determine the influence of cornichons on AMPAR single-channel properties we co-expressed GluA1 and cornichon 3 (CNIH3) in tsA201 cells and examined AMPARs in outside-out patches. The weighted mean single-channel conductance was increased in a dose-dependent manner when increasing amounts of CNIH3 cDNA were included in the transfection mix. Up to three open channel conductance levels were detected, with the lower conductance levels being more prevalent in cells with a low CNIH3/GluA1 cDNA ratio, and higher level conductance levels predominating in cells with a high CNIH3/ GluA1 cDNA ratio. CNIH3 also increased the burst duration of GluA1 single-channels. Fast application of glutamate onto excised patches indicated that CNIH3 slowed the rate of desensitization. As our data indicated that AMPAR channel properties were markedly altered by cornichons, we considered whether these proteins were expressed at the surface of cells where such modulation may be functionally important. Positive cell surface labeling of cornichons was not seen in neurons (see also Shi et al. 2010) but was detected in glial cells which express AMPARs. Supported by the Wellcome Trust.Schwenk, J. et al. (2009). Science, 323, 1313-9.Shi, Y., et al. (2010). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 107, 16315-9.

We have analyzed the variance associated with the decay of the non-NMDA receptor component of synaptic currents, recorded from mossy fiber-granule cell synapses in cerebellar slices, to obtain a conductance estimate for the synaptic channel. Current fluctuations arising from the random channel gating properties were separated from those arising from the fluctuations in the population of channels by subtracting the mean excitatory postsynaptic current (EPSC) waveform scaled to the EPSC peak amplitude. A weighted mean single-channel conductance of approximately 20 pS was determined from the relationship between the mean current and the variance around the mean during the decay of evoked and spontaneous synaptic currents. This result suggests that high conductance non-NMDA channels, such as the 10-30 pS glutamate receptor channel previously characterized in granule cells, carry the majority of the fast component of the EPSC at this synapse. In addition, our data are consistent with the activation of surprisingly few (approximately 10) non-NMDA channels by a single packet of transmitter.

1. Application of non-NMDA (non-N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptor agonists onto outside-out patches of cerebellar granule cells gave two characteristic types of response (in different patches) which we have referred to as 'high conductance' and 'low conductance' responses. At a qualitative level these patches could be readily distinguished by the size of the noise increase accompanying their membrane currents. 2. In high conductance patches both AMPA (alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid) and kainate gave discrete single-channel conductances (10-30 pS), while in low conductance patches, AMPA produced small discrete events (6-10 pS), and kainate opened channels with conductances too small to be directly resolved. All patches examined contained NMDA receptor channels with characteristic 50 and 40 pS conductance levels. 3. Despite the marked differences in single-channel conductances, kainate dose-response curves constructed for high and low conductance patches had similar EC50 values of approximately 150 microM. 4. Spectral analysis of low conductance kainate responses gave an estimated channel conductance of approximately 1.5 pS. In these same low conductance patches AMPA produced discrete openings with two conductance levels; their mean conductances (and relative proportions) were 6 (87%) and 10 pS (13%). 5. In high conductance patches, glutamate (10-30 microM), AMPA (3-10 microM), and kainate (10-30 microM), each activated non-NMDA channels with three multiple conductance levels. The amplitudes of these conductance levels (approximately 10, 20 and 30 pS) were similar for each of the agonists, and their relative proportions (i.e. areas in the amplitude histograms) were constant for all three agonists. In addition, the relative proportion of levels was constant between patches, and all three levels were invariably present. These observations are all consistent with the idea that the three multiple conductances originate from a single receptor channel, activated by AMPA, kainate and glutamate. 6. Non-NMDA single-channel current-voltage (I-V) plots showed outward rectification in high conductance patches. For all three multiple conductance levels the ratio of outward to inward single-channel slope conductance was 1.8 +/- 0.1 and this rectification remained present in symmetrical Na+ solutions. 7. In high conductance patches, the events produced by a rapid application of 20-50 microM glutamate were compared with those activated during steady-state application.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Models of receptor activation have been widely used to describe fundamental properties of ion channels. Designing a kinetic scheme that could account for more than just simple receptor activation started with Bernard Katz and Stephen Thesleff's (1957) paper, which appeared more than fifty years ago in The Journal of Physiology. In this classic study, Katz and Thesleff attempted to quantify, and provide a simple physical explanation for, the phenomenon of acetylcholine (ACh) receptor desensitization at the frog endplate. In so doing, they extended del Castillo & Katz's (1957)‘working hypothesis’ that had appeared just a few months earlier, which proposed a two state model of receptor activation – with states that corresponded to the inactive and active forms of the bound (liganded) acetylcholine receptor (AChR). Del Castillo & Katz's scheme (Fig. 1) itself advanced earlier mathematical descriptions of drug and receptor binding and activation, such as those of Hill (1909), Clark (1933) and Gaddum (1937), by modifying Michaelis and Menten's (1913) concept that enzymatic conversion of substrate proceeds as a two step process – with the intermediate (fast) step involving the formation of an ‘inactive’ complex. The simple idea of a two state scheme for receptor activation not only provided an important and realistic distinction between ‘occupation (binding)’ and ‘activation (isomerisation)’ for transmitter-gated channels, but also allowed Katz and Thesleff to address the observation that many receptor mediated responses decline in the continued presence of an agonist. Figure 1 A scheme to explain the activation and desensitization of the ACh receptor In their experiments Katz & Thesleff (1957) used electrically controlled ionophoretic application of ACh from a double-barrelled glass micropipette positioned close to the endplate region of a frog's muscle fibre. One of the barrels provided a steady conditioning dose of ACh that elicited a desensitizing response, while the other was used to apply brief test pulses to monitor the development and recovery phase of desensitization (Fig. 2). From their data, Katz and Thesleff confirmed that the time course of onset of desensitization depended on dose, as described earlier by Paul Fatt (1950), and determined that this onset could occur more slowly than recovery from desensitization. Importantly, they established that the time course of recovery was relatively fast and independent of the conditioning dose or degree of desensitization (typically, with a time constant in the order of 4 s). Initially, Katz and Thesleff derived equations to describe the rate of desensitization onset and recovery, by considering the hypothetical ‘sequential’ and ‘simultaneous’ reaction schemes shown in Fig. 3. However, the resulting equations inferred that desensitization onset must always be faster than the recovery – a prediction that directly contradicted their experimental findings. Thus they were able to safely reject the following two reaction schemes (Fig. 3) as plausible models of receptor desensitization. Figure 3 Sequential and simultaneous reaction schemes considered and rejected Figure 2 Intracellular voltage recording of acetylcholine responses at the frog endplate They suggested, instead, a type of reaction scheme in which recovery from desensitization was slowed by the presence of agonist – namely a cyclical reaction. In such a scheme, the receptor would exist in two forms – normal (A) and desensitized (B) – both of which bind rapidly and reversibly with the agonist. However, the bound form of the active receptor is converted irreversibly to its desensitized bound form, and the unbound desensitized receptor returns irreversibly to its reactive form. Their experimental results fitted this model if the affinity of the agonist for the desensitized receptor (B) was much higher than for the normal receptor (A). Alternatively, they proposed a cyclical scheme in which reaction steps were reversible. A feature of such a scheme is that even in the absence of agonist a proportion of receptors will exist in their desensitized (B) state, and because of the high affinity of this form, will preferentially bind agonist. By proposing such cyclical schemes (Fig. 4), they introduced the concept that agonist can bind to and dissociate from multiple receptor conformations, albeit with different rates. This idea was extended over the following decade by the Monod–Wyman–Changeux (Monod et al. 1965) and Koshland–Nemethy–Filmer (Koshland et al. 1966) models of protein conformational change. Figure 4 The two cyclical schemes proposed by Katz and Thesleff The formalisation of the idea that the interaction of a neurotransmitter with receptor involves more than simply binding represents an important step in the history of receptor-channel theory, and hence in our views of fundamental mechanisms that underlie synaptic transmission. It paved the way for ever more complex models of channel gating. Desensitized states are routinely included in many receptor models and in the case of muscle acetylcholine receptors it is known that there are at least four or five distinct desensitized states (Elenes & Auerbach, 2002). Although, for the muscle nicotinic receptor, desensitization is expected to have minimal physiological effect, it plays an important role in the normal activity of many other ligand-gated receptor channels (Jones & Westbrook, 1996), and in many voltage-gated ion channels, in the form of ‘inactivation’ (Hille, 2001). Perhaps the height of complexity of ion channel models is found in the BK potassium channel, with its multiple Ca2+-binding sites and multiple voltage sensors, where models have been proposed that contain 1250 different states (Magleby, 2003). Importantly the schemes introduced by Katz and colleagues, with a channel-gating step that is separate from ligand binding, provided a physically realistic account for the reduced potency of partial agonists. Indeed the ‘curare-like’ inhibition elicited by coapplication of the full agonist ACh with the partial agonist choline was correctly attributed to competition between acetylcholine and choline for the same ligand-binding sites on the receptor. The concept of an initial binding step also helps us to visualise the mode of action of competitive antagonists; the antagonist occupies the agonist binding site, but its ability to open the channel (efficacy) is essentially zero. On this basis, competitive antagonists and partial agonists appear to form part of a continuum. Indeed, this view has recently been emphasised by the observation that 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX), a classic competitive glutamate antagonist at AMPA receptor channels, is converted to a partial agonist when AMPA receptors are expressed in the presence of auxiliary subunits that modify the channel gating (Menuz et al. 2007). Intriguingly, there appear to be two different mechanisms of partial agonism at ligand-gated ion channels. Some partial agonists at kainate receptors (Frydenvang et al. 2009), glycine-binding subunits of NMDA receptors (Inanobe et al. 2005), and pentameric ligand-gated receptors (Lape et al. 2008) seem to bind in ways very similar to full agonists, but the subsequent reaction steps have reduced efficacy. In contrast at AMPA-type glutamate receptors (Jin et al. 2003), and the glutamate-binding subunits of NMDA receptors (Erreger et al. 2005), different partial agonists promote differing extents of binding domain closure around the ligand. The fundamental advance offered by Katz and Thesleff's approach was the ability to distinguish between kinetic models. Discrimination between models is usually based on the model's predicted properties, such as time constants of a particular process (e.g. desensitization, deactivation, rise-time), dwell-time distributions of single channel open and shut states, the likelihood of a particular reaction scheme generating observed single channel data, and the systematic ranking of proposed schemes. Katz and colleagues’ use of kinetic schemes gave a physical interpretation of the states involved in transmitter–receptor interaction long before three dimensional structures for receptors were available, or the molecular identity of receptors determined. It is now clear that at least some of these proposed states can be structurally identified as stable intermediates of a dynamic protein structure (Unwin, 2003). However, functional studies have identified many more stable states than those currently solved by structural methods, and the integration of kinetic and structural data therefore remains a major challenge in the field of receptor function.