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Observational instruments are proposed as the best method to assess the quality of parent–child interaction. However, the psychometric properties and theoretical foundations of these observational tools have been questioned. Further, very few studies have focussed on the construct validity of these instruments for father–child interaction quality. In this study, we examined the construct validity of the Coding Interactive Behavior (CIB) measure in a sample of 320 father-infant dyads. A four-factor model, previously found to fit mother–infant interactions, failed to demonstrate an acceptable model fit for our father-infant sample. Instead, a data-driven three-factor model was indicated to be a better fit. This model consists of the composites, ‘Paternal Sensitivity’, ‘Paternal Positive Affect’, and ‘Child Engagement’. Interestingly, while these factors bear similarities to those found in maternal interactions, they manifest distinct characteristics for fathers. Our results emphasize the necessity of refining and validating observational tools specifically for diverse parent–child contexts.

Play and exploration may develop within the child’s early attachment relationship to e.g. their mother. This study examined whether attachment security and disorganisation predicted the developmental level of play as well as the duration of pretend play in a low-risk sample. 64 mother-child dyads participated in an assessment of child attachment at 18 months (using the Strange Situation Procedure) and a 20-minute laboratory play setup including four different conditions at 30 months. Children’s play were coded using the 12 Step Play Scale. Generalized estimating equations showed a significant positive association between attachment security and developmental play level. Further, play level scores decreased as disorganisation increased in a story stem play condition. There were no significant associations regarding attachment and duration of pretend play. Our findings indicate the importance for a secure base that the child can explore from, leading to a more developmentally advanced play.

Background Pretend play is a signature behavior of early childhood and is considered to reflect the child’s emerging symbolic function, enabling the interpretation of social signals, language development, and emotion understanding. While theory links parental mentalizing with children’s pretend play, only a few studies have investigated this association. These studies are limited to infancy and early toddlerhood, and child pretend play is assessed during play with an adult (social play). Based on the assumption that child solitary pretend play reflects the child’s ‘baseline’ pretend play ability, in this study, we investigated children’s pretend play at its peak, i.e., during the preschool age, without the facilitation of another player. The overall objective was to investigate if parental mentalizing increases pretend play complexity in children.Methods The sample consisted 99 Danish mothers and their 4-year-old children. Employing a cross-sectional design, we hypothesized that parental mental state language, as an indicator of ‘online’ mentalizing during interaction with the child, is a mechanism through which ‘offline’ mentalizing, measured as parental reflective functioning, is associated with child solitary pretend play. Child pretend play complexity was observed and coded with an adapted version of the 12-Step Play Scale. Maternal offline mentalizing was assessed with the Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire, and maternal online mentalizing was assessed by coding the mothers’ mental state language during interaction with the child using a modified version of the mind-mindedness coding scheme.Results While there was no direct effect of maternal offline reflective functioning on child pretend play, online mental state language mediated the link between offline maternal reflective functioning and child pretend play.Conclusions These results provide support for the theoretically assumed link between parental mentali

Mentalizing is, to a certain extent, considered context specific. However, research on the association between parents’ abilities to reflect upon their infant's mental states outside social interaction (offline) versus during ongoing parent-infant interaction (online) is currently limited. This study investigated the association between self-reported offline and online mentalizing in a sample of primarily ethnically Danish mothers (N = 142), with symptoms of postpartum depression, and their 1–11-month-old infants. Offline mentalizing was assessed with the Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire—Infant Version (PRFQ-I) and online mentalizing was assessed with interactional mind-mindedness. Ordinal logistic regressions showed that a higher score on the PRFQ-I prementalizing subscale was negatively related to number of overall mind-related comments and appropriate mind-related comments produced by mothers during interaction with their infant. Our results indicate partial overlaps between self-reported parental reflective functioning and mind-mindedness, that is, that particularly offline maladaptive mentalizing is associated with lower levels of mentalizing during interaction in mothers with symptoms of depression. Post-hoc examination of the interaction effect of postpartum depression showed that this association was only evident in mothers with medium to high levels of depression. Findings and implications are discussed.

The quality of parent-child interaction has consistently been associated with child psychosocial outcomes. Postnatal depression (PND) and anxiety (PNA) can have an adverse effect on the parent-child interaction. The Coding Interactive Behaviour (CIB) measure has frequently been used to assess parent-infant interaction quality; however, few have investigated the construct validity. The purpose of this study is to: (1) compare two theoretical models and one data-driven model for best fit and to test the best fitting one for measurement invariance among mothers with and without PND, and (2) compare effects of PND and PNA on the mother-infant interactions. The sample consisted of mothers with PND (n = 236) and a subclinical sample of mothers with elevated symptoms of PND but did not meet criteria for a diagnosis (n = 183) and their infants (aged ≤ 6 months). PND was assessed with a diagnostic interview and PNA using a self-report measure. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the data-driven model, consisting of the composites ‘Maternal Sensitivity’, ‘Child Engagement’, ‘Maternal Social Withdrawal’, and ‘Maternal Controlling Behaviour’, reached the best fit and showed measurement invariance with regard to PND. Factorial ANOVAs showed no effects of PND and PNA on the composites. The study is the first to investigate and find measurement invariance in the CIB, providing evidence of construct validity. The importance of investigating the factor structure of an instrument liable to change due to contextual factors is discussed., The quality of parent-child interaction has consistently been associated with child psychosocial outcomes. Postnatal depression (PND) and anxiety (PNA) can have an adverse effect on the parent-child interaction. The Coding Interactive Behaviour (CIB) measure has frequently been used to assess parent-infant interaction quality; however, few have investigated the construct validity. The purpose of this study is to: (1) compare two theoretical models and one data-driven model for best fit and to test the best fitting one for measurement invariance among mothers with and without PND, and (2) compare effects of PND and PNA on the mother-infant interactions. The sample consisted of mothers with PND (n = 236) and a subclinical sample of mothers with elevated symptoms of PND but did not meet criteria for a diagnosis (n = 183) and their infants (aged ≤ 6 months). PND was assessed with a diagnostic interview and PNA using a self-report measure. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the data-driven model, consisting of the composites ‘Maternal Sensitivity’, ‘Child Engagement’, ‘Maternal Social Withdrawal’, and ‘Maternal Controlling Behaviour’, reached the best fit and showed measurement invariance with regard to PND. Factorial ANOVAs showed no effects of PND and PNA on the composites. The study is the first to investigate and find measurement invariance in the CIB, providing evidence of construct validity. The importance of investigating the factor structure of an instrument liable to change due to contextual factors is discussed.

Theory and research have linked pretend play in early childhood with the development of language and theory of mind. In 102 mother–child dyads at 4.5 years, we examined whether (1) introducing a story stem (a play narrative with socioemotional dilemmas) in a mother–child play context increases pretend play complexity compared with mother–child free play; and (2) maternal sensitivity is associated with pretend play complexity. Further, we explored whether the story stem increased child pretend play complexity more in dyads with mothers with low sensitivity compared with highly sensitive mothers. Sensitivity was coded using Coding Interactive Behavior and pretend play complexity with a global, integrated measure of the developmental level and quantity of play. Using generalized estimating equations, we found that pretend play complexity was positively associated with introducing a story stem and maternal sensitivity. Mixed methods ancova showed no significant interaction between play situation and maternal sensitivity. The findings stress the importance of maternal sensitivity and participation for play and how introducing a story stem may help promote child pretend play complexity., Theory and research have linked pretend play in early childhood with the development of language and theory of mind. In 102 mother–child dyads at 4.5years, we examined whether (1) introducing a story stem (a play narrative with socioemotional dilemmas) in a mother–child play context increases pretendplay complexity compared with mother–child free play; and (2) maternal sensitivity is associated with pretend play complexity. Further, we exploredwhether the story stem increased child pretend play complexity more in dyads with mothers with low sensitivity compared with highly sensitive mothers.Sensitivity was coded using Coding Interactive Behavior and pretend play complexity with a global, integrated measure of the developmental level andquantity of play. Using generalized estimating equations, we found that pretend play complexity was positively associated with introducing a storystemand maternal sensitivity. Mixed methodsANCOVAshowed no significant interaction between play situation and maternal sensitivity. Thefindings stress theimportance of maternal sensitivity and participation for play and how introducing a story stem may help promote child pretend play complexity.Key words: Pretend play, maternal sensitivity, story stem, mother–child play, scaffolding.

Parental Embodied Mentalizing (PEM) captures the parent's capacity to extrapolate the child's mental states from movement and respond on a nonverbal level. Little is known about PEM's relation to other established measures of parent-child interactive behavior, such as maternal sensitivity and attachment. This is investigated in a sample of four months old infants and mothers with (n = 27) and without a diagnosis of postpartum depression (n = 44). Video-recorded infant-mother interactions were coded independently using PEM and Coding Interactive Behavior. Attachment was assessed at 13 months using the Strange Situation Procedure. Sensitivity and PEM was positively associated, but only sensitivity predicted attachment security and only the nonclinical group. This indicates that PEM and sensitivity are moderately related as well as capturing different aspects of infant-mother interactions. The study confirms previous findings of sensitivity predicting attachment in nonclinical groups. More research is required to further understand predictors of attachment in clinical samples.

Background: Infant mental health represents a significant public health issue. The transition to parenthood provides optimal opportunities for supporting parenting competence. Especially parental mentalization, i.e. the caregiver’s ability to notice and interpret the child’s behavior in terms of mental states, is important in infancy where the caregiver-infant communication is based solely on the infant’s behavioral cues. Methods: This study evaluates the efficacy of the intervention Understanding Your Baby (UYB) compared to Care As Usual (CAU) in 10 Danish municipalities. UYB aims at promoting parental competence in new parents by supporting them in noticing their infants’ behavioral cues and interpreting them in terms of mental states. Participants will be approximately 1,130 singletons and their parents. Inclusion criteria are first-time parents, minimum 18 years old, living in one of the 10 municipalities, and registered in the Danish Civil Registration Register (CPR). Around 230 health visitors deliver the UYB as part of their routine observation of infant social withdrawal in the Danish home visiting program. During an interaction between the health visitor and the infant, the health visitor articulates specific infant behaviors and helps the caregivers interpret these behaviors to mental states. The study is a controlled parallel group study with data obtained at four time points in two phases: First in the control group receiving the publicly available postnatal care (CAU), secondly in the intervention group after UYB implementation into the existing postnatal services. The primary outcome is maternal competence. Secondary measures include paternal competence, parental stress, parental mentalizing, and infant socioemotional development. Analysis will employ survey data and data from the health visitors’ register. Discussion: Results will provide evidence regarding the efficacy of UYB in promoting parenting competences. If proved effective, the study will

The parents’ capacity to reflect upon the psychological processes in their child,termed parental reflective functioning (PRF) can be impaired by parental mentalhealth problems. The present study aimed to investigate the factor structure ofan infant version of the Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire (PRFQ-I)in a low-risk sample of 259 Danish fathers of 1–11-month-old infants to investi-gate measurement invariance of the PRFQ-I between fathers and mothers; andto examine the association between PRF and paternal depressive symptoms, psy-chological distress, and parenting stress. Confirmatory factor analysis supporteda three-factor model of the PRFQ-I. Multi-group factor analysis indicated par-tial measurement invariance. Multiple linear regressions showed that paternaldepressive symptoms were not associated with PRF. There was an interactioneffect of paternal depressive symptoms and general psychological distress onpaternal interest and curiosity in their infant’s mental state and certainty ofinfantmentalstate.IncreasedparentingstresswasassociatedwithimpairedPRFon all three subscales of the PRFQ-I. These results provide further evidence for amultidimensional, brief assessment of paternal reflective skills and insight intohow variability in paternal psychological functioning relates to impaired PRF inthe postpartum period.

Many parents use social media to seek knowledge about child development and parenting, but parents are an understudied population in social media research. In this study, we use a mixed-methods approach to examine mothers' experience of following three different types of Instagram profiles: InstaParents, i.e. influencers sharing their personal experiences with parenthood, professional profiles disseminating knowledge about parenting and child development, and a university-based profile disseminating knowledge about child socioemotional development. The participants were 270 mothers with children aged 0–6 years, who completed an online questionnaire regarding their experience and use of Instagram. Generalized Estimating Equations were used to examine associations between mothers' social comparison orientation and their experience of following the different types of profiles. Content analysis of mothers' responses to open-ended questions was used to examine how mothers were negatively affected and supported by the different profiles. Results showed that mothers with higher levels of social comparison orientation were more negatively affected by following all three types of profiles, but also more supported by following InstaParents. The content analysis suggested that mothers were negatively affected by InstaParents by making upward comparisons and supported by making horizontal comparisons. Mothers were supported by professional profiles, including the university-based profile, by improved knowledge, but these profiles could also lead to a decreased sense of parenting competence. Results inform professionals in relation to how to support mothers through content on Instagram and how to talk to mothers about their digital use and well-being.

Infant social withdrawal is a risk factor for non-optimal child development; thus, it is important to identify risk factors associated with withdrawal. In a large community sample (N = 19,017), we investigate whether symptoms of maternal and partner postpartum depression (PPD; measured with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale) and prematurity are predictors of infant social withdrawal (measured with the Alarm Distress Baby Scale). Withdrawal was assessed at 2–3, 4–7 and 8–12 months postpartum. Linear regressions showed that prematurity predicted higher infant social withdrawal at all time points, and maternal symptoms of PPD were positively associated with withdrawal at 2–3 months. Logistic regressions showed that odds for elevated social withdrawal were increased with elevated levels of maternal symptoms of PPD at 2–3 and 8–12 months. Partner's symptoms of PPD were not associated with withdrawal. Future studies should investigate how PPD symptoms and prematurity may impact the individual development of social withdrawal., Infant social withdrawal is a risk factor for non-optimal child development; thus, it is important to identify risk factors associated with withdrawal. In a large community sample (N = 19,017), we investigate whether symptoms of maternal and partner postpartum depression (PPD; measured with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale) and prematurity are predictors of infant social withdrawal (measured with the Alarm Distress Baby Scale). Withdrawal was assessed at 2–3, 4–7 and 8–12 months postpartum. Linear regressions showed that prematurity predicted higher infant social withdrawal at all time points, and maternal symptoms of PPD were positively associated with withdrawal at 2–3 months. Logistic regressions showed that odds for elevated social withdrawal were increased with elevated levels of maternal symptoms of PPD at 2–3 and 8–12 months. Partner's symptoms of PPD were not associated with withdrawal. Future studies should investigate how PPD symptoms and prematurity may impact the individual development of social withdrawal.