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The relationship between external feedback and cognitive and neurophysiological performance has been extensively investigated in social neuroscience. However, few studies have considered the role of positive and negative external social feedback on electroencephalographic (EEG) and moderate stress response. Twenty‐six healthy adults underwent a moderately stressful job interview consisting of a modified version of the Trier Social Stress Test. After each preparation, feedback was provided by an external committee, ranging from positive to negative with increasing impact on subjects. Stress response was measured by analysing response times (RTs) during the speech phase, while cognitive performance was assessed using a Stroop‐like task before and after the test. Results indicate that RTs used to deliver the final speeches with negative feedback were significantly lower compared with those used for the initial speech with positive feedback. Moreover, a generalized improvement in Stroop‐like task performance was observed in the post‐SST compared with the pre‐SST. Consistent with behavioural results, EEG data indicated greater delta, theta, and alpha band responses in right prefrontal and left central areas, and for delta and theta bands, also in parietal areas in response to positive feedback compared with aversive‐neutral feedback, highlighting greater cognitive effort required by the former. Conversely, an increase in these bands in right and left temporal and left occipital areas was observed following negative and aversive feedback, indicative of an adaptive response to stress and emotion‐regulatory processes. These findings suggest that negative social feedback in moderately stressful and noncritical conditions could contribute to improving individual cognitive performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The auditory Stroop is a modification of the classic Stroop paradigm commonly used in dual-task research when the motor task requires the visual system. Despite its use, there are gaps in our understanding of this tool. For example, in visual/auditory Stroop paradigms, neutral cues irrelevant to the required response, which theoretically cause less interference/facilitation, are used to elucidate effects of visual/auditory demands on neural processes. Specifically, in auditory Stroop paradigms the use and choice of neutral cue words is inconsistent. To address these gaps, we instrumented participants with kinematic markers and a digital microphone and asked them to respond to auditory Stroop cues and neutral cue words consisting of either one or two syllables, while simultaneously performing an unobstructed locomotor task. Two blocks of trials were collected. In one block, participants had prior knowledge that either an auditory Stroop or a neutral word stimulus would be presented (Known); a second block presented both types of cognitive cues in a random order to participants (Mixed). We observed main effects of cognitive task (neutral, incongruent, congruent) and instructional set (Known, Mixed) on response times, but not on center of mass velocity. Also, more time was required to verbally respond to an incongruent compared to congruent or neutral task across all conditions, and neutral task words with one syllable resulted in longer response times compared to two syllable neutral words. We recommend that researchers include neutral cues when using the auditory Stroop test and to carefully consider their neutral word choice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive impairments affect functional capacity in individuals with schizophrenia (SZH), but their neural basis remains unclear. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), and the Stroop Task (SCWT), are paradigmatic tests which have been used extensively for examining executive function in SZH. However, few studies have explored how deficits on these tasks link to brain volume differences commonly seen in SZH. Here, for the first time, we tested associations between FreeSurfer-derived frontal brain volumes and performance on both WCST and SCWT, in a well-matched sample of 57 SZH and 32 control subjects. We also explored whether these associations were dissociable from links to symptom severity in SZH. Results revealed correlations between volumes and task performance which were unique to SZH. In SZH only, volumes of right middle frontal regions correlated with both WCST and Stroop performance: correlation coefficients were significantly different to those present in the control group, highlighting their specificity to the patient group. In the Stroop task, superior frontal regions also showed associations with Stroop interference scores which were unique to SZH. These findings provide important detail around how deficits on these two paradigmatic executive function tasks link to brain structural differences in SZH. Results align with converging evidence suggesting that neuropathology within right middle frontal regions (BA9 and BA46) might be of particular import in SZH. No volumetric associations with symptom severity were found, supporting the notion that the structural abnormalities underpinning cognitive deficits in SZH differ from those associated with symptomatology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study aimed to investigate the neural mechanisms that differentiate mind--body practices from aerobic physical activities and elucidate their effects on cognition and healthy aging. We examined functional brain connectivity in older adults (age > 60) without pre-existing uncontrolled chronic diseases, comparing Tai Chi with Water Aerobics practitioners. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional, case--control fMRI study involving two strictly matched groups (n = 32) based on gender, age, education, and years of practice. Seed-to-voxel analysis was performed using the Salience, and Frontoparietal Networks as seed regions in Stroop Word-Color and N-Back tasks and Resting State. Results: During Resting State condition and using Salience network as a seed, Tai Chi group exhibited a stronger correlation between Anterior Cingulate Cortex and Insular Cortex areas (regions related to interoceptive awareness, cognitive control and motor organization of subjective aspects of experience). In N-Back task and using Salience network as seed, Tai Chi group showed increased correlation between Left Supramarginal Gyrus and various cerebellar regions (related to memory, attention, cognitive processing, sensorimotor control and cognitive flexibility). In Stroop task, using Salience network as seed, Tai Chi group showed enhanced correlation between Left Rostral Prefrontal Cortex and Right Occipital Pole, and Right Lateral Occipital Cortex (areas associated with sustained attention, prospective memory, mediate attention between external stimuli and internal intention). Additionally, in Stroop task, using Frontoparietal network as seed, Water Aerobics group exhibited a stronger correlation between Left Posterior Parietal Lobe (specialized in word meaning, representing motor actions, motor planning directed to objects, and general perception) and different cerebellar regions (linked to object mirroring). Conclusion: Our study provides evidence of differences in functional connectivity between older adults who have received training in a mind--body practice (Tai Chi) or in an aerobic physical activity (Water Aerobics) when performing attentional and working memory tasks, as well as during resting state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated whether, during visual word recognition, semantic processing is modulated by attentional control mechanisms directed at matching semantic information with task-relevant goals. In previous research, we analyzed the semantic Stroop interference as a function of response latency (delta-plot analyses) and found that this phenomenon mainly occurs in the slowest responses. Here, we investigated whether this pattern is due to reduced ability to proactively maintain the task goal in these slowest trials. In two pairs of experiments, participants completed two semantic Stroop tasks: a classic semantic Stroop task (Experiment 1A and 2A) and a semantic Stroop task combined with an n-back task (Experiment 1B and 2B). The two pairs of experiments only differed in the trial pace, which was slightly faster in Experiments 2A and 2B than in Experiments 1A and 1B. By taxing the executive control system, the n-back task was expected to hinder proactive control. Delta-plot analyses of the semantic Stroop task replicated the enhanced effect in the slowest responses, but only under sufficient time pressure. Combining the semantic Stroop task with the n-back task produced a change in the distributional profile of semantic Stroop interference, which we ascribe to a general difficulty in the use of proactive control. Our findings suggest that semantic Stroop interference is, to some extent, dependent on the available executive resources, while also being sensitive to subtle variations in task conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent work demonstrates that those who regularly play action video games (AVGs) consistently outperform non‐gamer (NG) controls on tests of various cognitive abilities. AVGs place high demands on several cognitive functions and are often engaged with for long periods of time (e.g., over 2 h), predisposing players to experiencing cognitive fatigue. The detrimental effects of cognitive fatigue have been widely studied in various contexts where accurate performance is crucial, including aviation, military, and sport. Even though AVG players may be prone to experiencing cognitive fatigue, this topic has received little research attention to date. In this study, we compared the effect of a cognitively fatiguing task on the subsequent cognitive performance of action video game players and NG control participants. Our results indicated AVGs showed superior spatial working memory and complex attention abilities while showing no difference from NGs on simple attention performance. Additionally, we found that our cognitive fatigue and control interventions did not differentially affect the cognitive performance of AVGs and NGs in this study. This pre‐registered study provides evidence that AVGs show superior cognitive abilities in comparison to a non‐gaming population, but do not appear more resilient to cognitive fatigue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human factors, including the level of cognitive functioning, are the most influential factors in road traffic crashes. Among cognitive abilities, executive functions (EFs) of the brain play a pivotal role in driving performance and outcomes, including crash numbers. The current study was aimed to explore, for the first time, the ability of EF tests to predict success on the official driving tests in applicants of driving license in Iran. We administered a relevant set of commonly used EF tests, including a computerized Stroop test and six tests from the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) and the Behavioral Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome (BADS), to 87 healthy new drivers applying for a driver's license (Mage = 25.9 years, SD = 8.2; 43 female). We also administered a series of demographic and psychological questionnaires. The data regarding the participants' official driving tests were extracted from the official records. To determine the relations of the EF tests with success on the driving tests, several correlation and regression analyses were conducted. Most of the EF measures had significant correlations with the road test success, while having no significant relations with the theory test success. Moreover, in our regression analyses, The EF measures predicted success on the official driving road test, but not success on the driving theory test, even after controlling for the effects of previous unlicensed driving experience and stress symptoms. The results demonstrate the predictability of the driving road test success from executive functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: To determine the association between neurological soft signs, executive functions, and serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Methods: Serum BDNF levels were measured in 87 drug-naive boys with ADHD, aged 7–12 years. The Revised Physical and Neurological Examination for Subtle Signs for neurological soft signs, Stroop Color-Word Test for attention functions, and Judgment of Line Orientation Test (JLOT) for visuospatial abilities were performed. Results: Age correlated negatively with dysrhythmia, total time, and total overflow in timed movements, Stroop Color-Word Time (SCWT), and serum BDNF levels. The JLOT significantly negatively correlated with Total Gaits and Stations (P1) and Total Time in Timed Movements (adjusted R2 = 0.247). In addition, SCWT maintained a significant correlation with Total Overflow in Timed Movements (adjusted R2 = 0.206). There was no correlation between serum BDNF levels and NSS. Conclusion: The association between NSS, visuospatial abilities, and selective attention may express a maturational delay in ADHD pathophysiology. Moreover, BDNF may play a role in this maturational delay. Future studies should investigate the contribution of BDNF to neuronal maturation in ADHD.

This study investigated the effect of Cognitive Rehabilitation Training (CRT) on executive functions, problem solving, and attention in students with a specific learning disorder (SLD). Forty-two SLD students from the third to sixth grade (8–12 years old) were randomly assigned to 16 sessions of CRT (n = 21) or to a control (n = 21) group. Executive functions were assessed by the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (2nd ed.), problem solving by the Tower of London test, and attention by the Stroop test. Analyses of variance and post-hoc analyses revealed that there were significant improvements in the CRT group in most aspects of executive functions, problem solving, and attention, and these improvements were maintained over a two-month follow-up. These findings suggest that a CRT program may have positive implications for cognitive functioning and may provide preliminary support for alternative therapeutic interventions for use in children with SLD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Background: Executive function deficits (EFD) in late‐life depression (LLD) has been reported to be associated with antidepressant treatment resistance, increased disability, and poor quality of life. However, the underlying neutral mechanisms of EFD in patients with the first episode of LLD remains unclear. Methods: A total of 27 patients with first‐episode, drug‐naive LLD and 27 non‐depressed controls (NC) were recruited for the present research. Participants underwent the Trail Making Test, the 17‐item Hamilton depression rating scale (HAMD‐17) test, and task‐state functional magnetic resonance imaging scans under the neutral Stroop task. LLD patients' executive functions, depressive symptoms, and brain activity were examined again after 6 months of antidepressant treatment. Results: Of the 27 LLD patients, 16 cases completed 6‐month follow‐ups. Patients in the LLD baseline group spent more time on the Trail Making Test A test than those in the NC group (p < 0.05). In the presence of an incongruency between the word color and meaning, the accuracy rate of the neutral Stroop task in the LLD baseline group was lower, and the reaction time was greater than that in the NC group, with statistically significant difference (p < 0.05). The HAMD‐17 score in the LLD follow‐up group was significantly lower than that in the LLD baseline group (p < 0.05). More activated brain regions were present in the LLD baseline group than in the NC group when performing the neutral Stroop task. Compared with the LLD baseline group, abnormal activation of relevant brains in the cingulate‐prefrontal‐parietal network of LLD patients still existed in the LLD follow‐up group. Conclusions: LLD patients engaged more brain areas than the NC group while performing the neutral Stroop task. Abnormal activation of the cingulate‐prefrontal‐parietal network could be a contributing factor to EFD in LLD. Trial registration: ChiCTR, ChiCTR2100042370 (Date of registration: 21/01/2021). Limits: We didn't enroll enough first‐episode, LLD patients, the robustness of the findings need to be confirmed by large sample clinical trials. Key points: The findings of this study suggest that there is no significant correlation between the relief of depressive symptoms and the improvement of executive dysfunction in individuals with first‐episode, late‐life depression (LLD).Patients with first‐episode, LLD engaged more brain areas than the normal control group while performing the neutral Stroop task.Abnormal activation of the cingulate‐prefrontal‐parietal network could be a contributing factor to executive function deficits in LLD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conflict-induced control refers to humans' ability to regulate attention in the processing of target information (e.g., the color of a word in the color-word Stroop task) based on experience with conflict created by distracting information (e.g., an incongruent color word), and to do so either in a proactive (preparatory) or a reactive (stimulus-driven) fashion. Interest in conflict-induced control has grown recently, as has the awareness that effects attributed to those processes might be affected by conflict-unrelated processes (e.g., the learning of stimulus-response associations). This awareness has resulted in the recommendation to move away from traditional interference paradigms with small stimulus/response sets and towards paradigms with larger sets (at least four targets, distractors, and responses), paradigms that allow better control of non-conflict processes. Using larger sets, however, is not always feasible. Doing so in the Stroop task, for example, would require either multiple arbitrary responses that are difficult for participants to learn (e.g., manual responses to colors) or non-arbitrary responses that can be difficult for researchers to collect (e.g., vocal responses in online experiments). Here, we present a spatial version of the Stroop task that solves many of those problems. In this task, participants respond to one of six directions indicated by an arrow, each requiring a specific, non-arbitrary manual response, while ignoring the location where the arrow is displayed. We illustrate the usefulness of this task by showing the results of two experiments in which evidence for proactive and reactive control was obtained while controlling for the impact of non-conflict processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: To determine the association between neurological soft signs, executive functions, and serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Methods: Serum BDNF levels were measured in 87 drug-naive boys with ADHD, aged 7--12 years. The Revised Physical and Neurological Examination for Subtle Signs for neurological soft signs, Stroop Color-Word Test for attention functions, and Judgment of Line Orientation Test (JLOT) for visuospatial abilities were performed. Results: Age correlated negatively with dysrhythmia, total time, and total overflow in timed movements, Stroop Color-Word Time (SCWT), and serum BDNF levels. The JLOT significantly negatively correlated with Total Gaits and Stations (P1) and Total Time in Timed Movements (adjusted R2 = 0.247). In addition, SCWT maintained a significant correlation with Total Overflow in Timed Movements (adjusted R2 = 0.206). There was no correlation between serum BDNF levels and NSS. Conclusion: The association between NSS, visuospatial abilities, and selective attention may express a maturational delay in ADHD pathophysiology. Moreover, BDNF may play a role in this maturational delay. Future studies should investigate the contribution of BDNF to neuronal maturation in ADHD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Substance use disorders are characterized by inhibition deficits related to disrupted connectivity in white matter pathways, leading via interaction to difficulties in resisting substance use. By combining neuroimaging with smartphone‐based ecological momentary assessment (EMA), we questioned how biomarkers moderate inhibition deficits to predict use. Thus, we aimed to assess white matter integrity interaction with everyday inhibition deficits and related resting‐state network connectivity to identify multi‐dimensional predictors of substance use. Thirty‐eight patients treated for alcohol, cannabis or tobacco use disorder completed 1 week of EMA to report substance use five times and complete Stroop inhibition testing twice daily. Before EMA tracking, participants underwent resting state functional MRI and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) scanning. Regression analyses were conducted between mean Stroop performances and whole‐brain fractional anisotropy (FA) in white matter. Moderation testing was conducted between mean FA within significant clusters as moderator and the link between momentary Stroop performance and use as outcome. Predictions between FA and resting‐state connectivity strength in known inhibition‐related networks were assessed using mixed modelling. Higher FA values in the anterior corpus callosum and bilateral anterior corona radiata predicted higher mean Stroop performance during the EMA week and stronger functional connectivity in occipital–frontal–cerebellar regions. Integrity in these regions moderated the link between inhibitory control and substance use, whereby stronger inhibition was predictive of the lowest probability of use for the highest FA values. In conclusion, compromised white matter structural integrity in anterior brain systems appears to underlie impairment in inhibitory control functional networks and compromised ability to refrain from substance use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The profile of executive function (EF) in adults with Schizophrenia (SCZ) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) remains unclear. This study aims to ascertain if distinct EF patterns can be identified between each clinical condition by comparing the neuropsychological profile of adults with SCZ and ASD, for whom the differential diagnosis is still highly challenging. Forty-five individuals (15 SCZ, 15 ASD, 15 controls) matched for age, sex, education level, and handedness underwent intelligence evaluation and neuropsychological testing for working memory, inhibition, planning and set-shifting, and verbal fluency subdomains. Principal component analysis (2D-PCA) using variables representing 4 domains was employed to identify patterns in neuropsychological profiles. The ASD group had lower scores on the Digits Forward subtest compared to the SCZ group (7.2 ± 2.1 vs. 9.3 ± 1.9, p = 0.003; Cohen's d: 1.05). ASD also performed significantly worse on the Stroop Word Test compared to the control group (77.7± 17.9 vs. 98.0 ± 12.7, p = 0.009; Cohen's d: 1.31). No significant differences were observed between ASD and SCZ on other EF measures. The larger contributors for the dimensions in 2D-PCA were the Digits Forward subtest and Stroop Word Test. Still, there was substantial overlap between the clinical groups. This study suggests a high degree of similarity of EF between SCZ and ASD. Through four EF measures, the discrimination of low and high-functioning EF groups spanning both diagnostic categories may help to identify the individuals who could better benefit from cognitive rehabilitation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BackgroundObsessive-compulsive (OC) traits (i.e., tendency to implement stereotyped behaviors to avoid negative consequences) are transversally observed in psychiatric disorders largely differing in terms of clinical manifestations and etiopathogenesis. Interestingly, OC traits were also extensively found in the prodromal phases of the full-blown psychopathology and in healthy relatives of affected individuals. Moreover, OC traits were found to be associated—and possibly underlain by—cognitive control impairments. Nonetheless, the role of such interplay in the onset of OC disorders is yet to be understood. We hypothesized that OC traits are associated with abnormalities in proactively implement cognitive control for solving conflict.MethodsWe administered healthy individuals (n = 104) with the perifoveal spatial Stroop task to measure their ability of solving conflict in a proactive fashion, and with Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory (OCI) to stratify population according to the severity of OC traits.ResultsAnalysis of response times by means of Linear Mixed-effect models revealed that proactive control performance was not associated with and the severity of OC traits. Furthermore, an equivalence test (Two One-Sided Test) revealed that the association between OCI scores and task performance was equivalent to zero.ConclusionThese results suggest that the interplay between OC traits and proactive control abnormalities might not contribute to the development of OC-related disorders. Therefore, the role of other cognitive endophenotypes should be scrutinized for exploiting alternative prevention and intervention strategies.

The physiological stress response affects executive functions, such as inhibition, as assessed by the Stroop Color and Word Test. In this study, we investigated the effects of the Virtual Reality Stroop Room (VRSR), a research paradigm assessing these cognitive top-down processes while inducing mild acute stress, on self-reported stress states, heart rate, salivary alpha-amylase, and cortisol. Our sample consisted of 89 participants (52 women; Age: 23.60 ± 3.88 years) and was evenly allocated to the three conditions of the VRSR (regular, time pressure, and rotation). The Stroop Effect, reflected in prolonged processing times and increased errors in the incongruent phase, was observed. Participants reported heightened Distress and Engagement post-experiment, alongside lower Worry, assessed via the Short Stress State Questionnaire. Scores from the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule indicated elevated positive affect and decreased negative affect post-study. With regard to biosignals we found that heart rate was higher in the incongruent phase, compared to the congruent phase and a significant time × condition interaction was observed. Salivary alpha-amylase exhibited a significant time effect. Results for cortisol do not support a uniform response of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. In conclusion, the VRSR appears to be a valid measure for executive functions while activating the sympathetic nervous system, but not the HPA axis. Its current implementation induces mild physiological and psychological stress responses, with fewer adverse reactions compared to the Trier Social Stress Test. Future studies should leverage the adaptability of virtual reality applications to refine this research paradigm.

Deciding on a course of action requires both an accurate estimation of option values and the right amount of effort invested in deliberation to reach sufficient confidence in the final choice. In a previous study, we have provided evidence, across a series of judgment and choice tasks, for a dissociation between the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), which would represent option values, and the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), which would represent the duration of deliberation. Here, we first replicate this dissociation and extend it to the case of an instrumental learning task, in which 24 human volunteers (13 women) choose between options associated with probabilistic gains and losses. According to fMRI data recorded during decision-making, vmPFC activity reflects the sum of option values generated by a reinforcement learning model and dmPFC activity the deliberation time. To further generalize the role of the dmPFC in mobilizing effort, we then analyze fMRI data recorded in the same participants while they prepare to perform motor and cognitive tasks (squeezing a handgrip or making numerical comparisons) to maximize gains or minimize losses. In both cases, dmPFC activity is associated with the output of an effort regulation model, and not with response time. Taken together, these results strengthen a general theory of behavioral control that implicates the vmPFC in the estimation of option values and the dmPFC in the energization of relevant motor and cognitive processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neurocognitive profiles may be especially useful to identify factors that facilitate transitioning from contemplating suicide to attempting suicide. Generally, those who attempt suicide show greater disruptions in neurocognitive ability compared to those who think about suicide but do not proceed to attempt. The goal of this systematic review and meta-analysis is to test whether this pattern is observed with attentional control. We systematically searched PubMed, PsychINFO, CINAHL, and Google Scholar to find pertinent studies. All included studies compared attentional functioning using neutral stimuli. Each sample featured adults with a history of suicidal ideation (SI) and no history of suicide attempts (SA) compared to those with a history of SA. We identified 15 studies with 32 effect sizes (N = 931; n = 506 with SI only; n = 425 with SA). SA groups, compared to SI groups, exhibited worse accuracy yet similar reaction time, suggesting a comparatively blunted speed-accuracy tradeoff. Relative to SI, SA groups performed worse on Stroop-like and Go/NoGo tasks. SA performed better than SI on Trail Making Test B, but not A. There were few available studies. Most samples were small. We did not differentiate current vs. past SI or high vs. low lethality SA. Only English and Spanish language articles were included. Disrupted attentional control may convey risk for transitioning to SA from SI. More work is needed to determine which components of attention are most associated with suicide risk. • We evaluated 15 articles that assessed neurocognitive risk for suicide ideation vs. attempts. • All articles assessed attentional ability using neutral stimuli only. • Attempters performed worse but had similar response time, suggesting blunted cognitive control. • Stroop and Go/NoGo tasks showed greatest potential to distinguish the two groups. • Attempters performed better on Trals B, suggesting better cognitive flexibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current investigation examined the bidirectional effects of cognitive control and emotional control and the overlap between these two systems in regulating emotions. Based on recent neural and cognitive findings, we hypothesised that two control systems largely overlap as control recruited for one system (either emotional or cognitive) can be used by the other system. In two experiments, participants completed novel versions of either the Stroop task (Experiment 1) or the Flanker task (Experiment 2) in which the emotional and cognitive control systems were actively manipulated into either a high or low emotional-load condition (achieved by varying the proportions of negative-valence emotional cues) and a high and a low cognitive control condition (achieved through varying the proportion of conflict-laden trials). In both experiments, participants’ performance was impaired when both emotional and cognitive control were low, but significantly and similarly improved when one of the two control mechanisms were activated – the emotional or the cognitive. In Experiment 2, performance was further improved when both systems were activated. Our results give further support for a more integrative notion of control in which the two systems (emotional and cognitive control) not only influence each other, but rather extensively overlap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mindfulness practices have been linked to enhanced attention and conflict resolution abilities. While much research has focused on the long-term effects of mindfulness, the immediate impact of a single session has been less studied. This study recruited 20 experienced meditators and 20 novices and assigned them to a mindfulness or a control condition. They completed a Stroop Task to measure cognitive conflict resolution before and after the intervention, with brain activity monitored via functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Novices showed an age-related decline in conflict resolution ability, while experienced meditators didn't. Initially, both groups showed similar Stroop performance, but experienced meditators had greater brain activation in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Post-intervention, novices in the breath count task became more similar to experienced meditators in their neural activity during conflict resolution. Our findings indicate that long-term mindfulness experience may protect against age-related decline in cognitive conflict resolution speed, and may alter neural processing of cognitive conflict resolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How does cognitive inhibition influence speaking? The Stroop effect is a classic demonstration of the interference between reading and color naming. We used a novel variant of the Stroop task to measure whether this interference impacts not only the response speed, but also the acoustic properties of speech. Speakers named the color of words in three categories: congruent (e.g., red written in red), color-incongruent (e.g., green written in red), and vowel-incongruent — those with partial phonological overlap with their color (e.g., rid written in red, grain in green, and blow in blue). Our primary aim was to identify any effect of the distractor vowel on the acoustics of the target vowel. Participants were no slower to respond on vowel-incongruent trials, but formant trajectories tended to show a bias away from the distractor vowel, consistent with a phenomenon of acoustic inhibition that increases contrast between confusable alternatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

People consistently associate colors with tastes (e.g., pink-sweet, yellow-sour). However, little has been known on the strength of those color-taste correspondences. The current study examined the congruency effect of colortaste correspondence using two Stroop word categorization tasks. The visual stimuli consisted of food names associated with sweet and sour tastes, presented in different shades of pink and yellow font colors. Participants were instructed to categorize the taste (sweet or sour) of the words in the Stroop word-taste categorization task and to discriminate the font color (pink or yellow) of the words in the Stroop word-color discrimination task. Results showed that participants responded faster in congruent conditions (sweet-pink and sour-yellow) than incongruent conditions (sweet-yellow and sour-pink) in both tasks. Specifically, yellow font colors facilitated the categorization of sour taste words compared to pink font colors, whereas sweet taste words facilitated the discrimination of pink font colors compared to sour taste words. These results provide further evidence for the congruency effect of color-taste correspondence in facilitating the processing of taste-related words and colors. Furthermore, the congruency effect was shown to operate bidirectionally, influencing both the conceptual meaning of tastes and perceptual color perception. This study highlights the significant interference effect of color-taste correspondence on cognitive processing as assessed by the Stroop task. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When perceived as threatening, social interactions have been shown to trigger the sympathoadrenal medullary system as well as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis resulting in a physiologic stress response. The allostatic load placed on human health and physiology in the context of acute and chronic stress can have profound health consequences. The purpose of this study was to develop a protocol for a lab-based stress stimulus using social-evaluative threat. While several valid, stress-stimulating protocols exist, we sought to develop one that triggered a physiologic response, did not require significant lab resources, and could be completed in around 10 min. We included 53 participants (29 men and 24 women) and exposed them to a modified version of the Stroop Color-Word Interference Task during which the participants were made to feel they were performing the task poorly while the lead researcher feigned annoyance and frustration. After exposure to this Feigned Annoyance and Frustration (FAF) Test, both the men and women in this study demonstrated a statistically significant and clinically meaningful increase in subjective stress on the visual analog scale. Additionally, the men in this study demonstrated a statistically significant increase in heart rate and salivary α-amylase concentrations after exposure to the test. The women in this study did not demonstrate a statistically significant increase in the physiologic stress biomarkers. This protocol for the FAF Test shows promise to researchers with limited time and resources who are interested in experimentally activating the sympathoadrenal medullary system.

The recognition of taboo words – i.e. socially inappropriate words – has been repeatedly associated to semantic interference phenomena, with detrimental effects on the performance in the ongoing task. In the present study, we investigated taboo interference in the context of reading aloud, a task configuration which prompts the overt violation of conventional sociolinguistic norms by requiring the explicit utterance of taboo items. We assessed whether this form of semantic interference is handled by habituative or cognitive control processes. In addition to the reading aloud task, participants performed a vocal Stroop task featuring different conditions to dissociate semantic, task, and response conflict. Taboo words were read slower than non-taboo words, but this effect was subject to a quick habituation, with a decreasing interference over the course of trials, which allowed participants to selectively attend to goal-relevant information. In the Stroop task, only semantic conflict was significantly reduced by habituation. These findings suggest that semantic properties can be quickly and flexibly weighed on the basis of contextual appropriateness, thus characterising semantic processing as a flexible and goal-directed component of reading aloud. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, a study by Dignath et al. (2023) reported on the intriguing finding that cognitive control is enhanced by information that primes self-referential processing. Here, we present an independently performed replication as a first step towards building a cumulative body of support for this finding. Specifically, we replicated their reduced Stroop effect for color-words that are presented together with the possessive pronoun 'my', as compared to color-words presented together with a definite or indefinite article. We did so in a Spanish cohort (generalizing from the German cohort in the original study), and while implementing several (theoretically irrelevant) changes to the design in order to showcase that this type of finding is not due to idiosyncratic features of the design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior evidence has linked inflammation with impulsivity, but most of this evidence is cross-sectional. In this study, we provoked an acute inflammatory cytokine response to see whether it lowered prepotent response inhibition on three cognitive tasks. This study features secondary analyses from a randomized crossover trial in which 171 postmenopausal breast cancer survivors (Stage I-IIIA) each received a typhoid capsular polysaccharide vaccination and a saline placebo injection in a random sequence at two separate visits at least one month apart. Participants completed the Stroop Color-Discrepant Task, the 2-back, and the Conners Continuous Performance Test (CPT) on the computer between 5 and 7 h after the injections. They had their blood drawn once before and repeatedly after the injection to measure interleukin-1 receptor antagonist and interleukin-6 responses. Women committed marginally fewer errors on the Stroop color-discrepant trials after the typhoid vaccine (M = 0.36, SE = 0.08), compared to placebo (M = 0.54, SE = 0.09, p =.076). Injection type did not predict 2-back accuracy (p =.80) or CPT commission errors (p =.47). Inflammatory cytokine responses were also unrelated to the outcomes of interest (p s>.16). We found no evidence that an acute inflammatory cytokine response provokes response disinhibition – an important facet of impulsivity. In fact, our only marginally non-significant result suggested that women were better able to inhibit their prepotent responses on the Stroop after receiving the typhoid vaccine, compared to placebo. Further experimental tests of the acute inflammatory cytokine response's effect on other aspects of impulsivity are warranted. The sample was female, primarily White, highly educated cancer survivors, and recruitment was not premised on impulsive traits or diagnosis with an impulsive-related disorder. Also, there are many facets of impulsivity, and this study only measured response inhibition. • Whether inflammation drives impulsivity or impulsive-related disorders is unclear. • We manipulated inflammation and measured response inhibition among 171 women. • They had a typhoid vaccine and placebo injection in a random order at two visits. • We found no evidence that acute inflammation provoked response disinhibition. • Further research should see if inflammation affects other aspects of impulsivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study examined the relationships between attentional control (AC) and the Big Five personality traits. Older and younger adults (M age = 38.62 years; Range = 18–90) completed a battery of behavioral attention tasks consisting of Stroop color naming, antisaccade, and operation span, which were designed to assess inhibition, goal maintenance, and working memory processes as a comprehensive assessment of AC. Participants then completed a set of personality scales including the NEO-FFI short form. Regression analyses revealed that Big Five personality scores were not related to the AC composite, but individual task relationships were found. Specifically, participants reporting greater Conscientiousness showed improved Stroop performance, but a Conscientiousness benefit did not extend to the other AC measures. No relationships emerged between other Big Five traits and AC. This work suggests potential cognitive benefits for Conscientiousness in older and younger adults and highlights a fruitful integration of personality and basic cognitive processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Bosphorus Medical Journal / Boğaziçi Tıp Dergisi is the property of KARE Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The profile of executive function (EF) in adults with Schizophrenia (SCZ) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) remains unclear. This study aims to ascertain if distinct EF patterns can be identified between each clinical condition by comparing the neuropsychological profile of adults with SCZ and ASD, for whom the differential diagnosis is still highly challenging. Forty-five individuals (15 SCZ, 15 ASD, 15 controls) matched for age, sex, education level, and handedness underwent intelligence evaluation and neuropsychological testing for working memory, inhibition, planning and set-shifting, and verbal fluency subdomains. Principal component analysis (2D-PCA) using variables representing 4 domains was employed to identify patterns in neuropsychological profiles. The ASD group had lower scores on the Digits Forward subtest compared to the SCZ group (7.2 ± 2.1 vs. 9.3 ± 1.9, p = 0.003; Cohen’s d: 1.05). ASD also performed significantly worse on the Stroop Word Test compared to the control group (77.7± 17.9 vs. 98.0 ± 12.7, p = 0.009; Cohen’s d: 1.31). No significant differences were observed between ASD and SCZ on other EF measures. The larger contributors for the dimensions in 2D-PCA were the Digits Forward subtest and Stroop Word Test. Still, there was substantial overlap between the clinical groups. This study suggests a high degree of similarity of EF between SCZ and ASD. Through four EF measures, the discrimination of low and high-functioning EF groups spanning both diagnostic categories may help to identify the individuals who could better benefit from cognitive rehabilitation strategies.

Mindfulness practices have been linked to enhanced attention and conflict resolution abilities. While much research has focused on the long-term effects of mindfulness, the immediate impact of a single session has been less studied. This study recruited 20 experienced meditators and 20 novices and assigned them to a mindfulness or a control condition. They completed a Stroop Task to measure cognitive conflict resolution before and after the intervention, with brain activity monitored via functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Novices showed an age-related decline in conflict resolution ability, while experienced meditators didn’t. Initially, both groups showed similar Stroop performance, but experienced meditators had greater brain activation in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Post-intervention, novices in the breath count task became more similar to experienced meditators in their neural activity during conflict resolution. Our findings indicate that long-term mindfulness experience may protect against age-related decline in cognitive conflict resolution speed, and may alter neural processing of cognitive conflict resolution.

IntroductionDeprivation of sleep (DS) has been associated with changes in mood and cognitive function, rapidly but transiently improving the severity of depression symptoms. However, it remains unclear whether there are differences in performance between DS responders and non-responders. The relationship between DS, mood, cognitive, and psychomotor function is also poorly understood.MethodsParticipants (n = 77) underwent a baseline assessment of sleep under the control of polysomnography (PSG). Later they were subjected to DS with actigraphy monitoring. Evaluation of mood as well as completing a battery of tests assessing cognitive functions and eye-hand coordination was conducted four times, pre/post PSG and DS. Participants were further divided into respondents (RE, n = 48) and non-respondents (NR, n = 29) depending on alleviation of depression symptoms severity following DS.ResultsAll participants exhibited increased response speed to visual triggers after DS compared to baseline (p = 0.024). Psychomotor vigilance test (PVT) results remained intact in the RE, whereas it was increased in the NR (p = 0.008). Exposure time in the eye-hand coordination test improved in both groups, but total error duration was reduced only in RE individuals (p

Cognitive control (CC) is essential for problem-solving in everyday life, and CC-related deficits occur alongside costly and debilitating disorders. The tri-partite model suggests that CC comprises multiple behaviors, including switching, inhibiting, and updating. Activity within the fronto-parietal control network B (FPCN-B), the dorsal attention network (DAN), the cingulo-opercular network (CON), and the lateral default-mode network (L-DMN) is related to switching and inhibiting behaviors. However, our understanding of how these brain regions interact to bring about cognitive switching and inhibiting in individuals is unclear. In the current study, subjects performed two in-scanner tasks that required switching and inhibiting. We used support vector regression (SVR) models containing individually-estimated functional connectivity between the FPCN-B, DAN, CON and L-DMN to predict switching and inhibiting behaviors. We observed that: inter-network connectivity can predict inhibiting and switching behaviors in individuals, and the L-DMN plays a role in switching and inhibiting behaviors. Therefore, individually estimated inter-network connections are markers of CC behaviors, and CC behaviors may arise due to interactions between a set of networks.

In three experiments, individual differences in preparatory control in the Stroop task were examined. Participants performed variants of the Stroop task while pupillary responses were examined during the preparatory interval. Variation in working memory capacity was also examined. High Stroop performers tended to demonstrate larger preparatory pupillary responses than low Stroop performers. In Experiment 2, when participants were given pre-cues indicating the congruency of the upcoming trial (MATCHING vs. CONFLICTING), high Stroop performers had larger preparatory pupillary responses for incongruent trials compared to congruent trials, whereas low Stroop performers demonstrated similar preparatory pupillary responses on both incongruent and congruent trials. These results suggest that variation in Stroop performance is partially due to individual differences in the ability to ramp up and regulate the intensity of attention allocated to preparatory control processes. Additionally, there was limited evidence that preparatory control processes partially account for the relation between working memory capacity and performance on the Stroop. Overall, these results provide evidence that individual differences in Stroop performance are partialy due to variation in preparatory control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accelerated shifts in global climate have increased the threat from intentionally lit fires, especially within wildfire prone communities. A considerable proportion of intentionally lit fires are set by adolescents with high levels of fire interest. A persistent issue within the literature is difficulty with reliably assessing fire interest, as existing self-report measures are highly susceptible to censored responses. The current study investigated whether fire interest could be effectively measured using attentional bias tasks. The sample consisted of 86 participants (10–17 years; M = 13.65, SD = 1.81) allocated into three firesetter classifications: minor firesetter (n = 24), serious firesetter (n = 28), and non-firesetter (n = 34). All participants completed a series of questionnaires and two modified Stroop tasks aimed at measuring implicit fire interest. The findings showed no association between explicit and implicit measures of fire interest. However, serious firesetters scored significantly higher than other firesetter classifications on both explicit and implicit measures. Additionally, both explicit fire interest and performance on the Lexical Fire-Stroop emerged as significant predictors of firesetting behaviour. Collectively, these results illustrate the Stroop paradigm may be an effective tool to measure implicit fire interest within a community sample, and potential improvements are discussed. The current study detected a surprisingly high frequency of self-reported firesetters within a community sample and significant incongruency between parental and child reported firesetting behaviour, demonstrating the importance of continued research in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mental imagery and perceptual cues can influence subsequent visual search performance, but examination of this influence has been limited to low-level features like colors and shapes. The present study investigated how the two types of cues influence low-level visual search, visual search with realistic objects, and executive attention. On each trial, participants were either presented with a colored square or tasked with using mental imagery to generate a colored square that could match the target (valid trial) or distractor (invalid trial) in the search array that followed (Experiments 1 and 3). In a separate experiment, the colored square displayed or generated was replaced with a realistic object in a specific category that could appear as a target or distractor in the search array (Experiment 2). Although the displayed object was in the same category as an item in the search display, they were never a perfect match (e.g., jam drop cookie instead of chocolate chip). Our findings revealed that the facilitation of performance on valid trials compared with invalid trials was greater for perceptual cues than imagery cues for low-level features (Experiment 1), whereas the influence of these two types of cues was comparable in the context of realistic objects (Experiment 2) The influence of mental imagery appears not to extend to the resolution of conflict generated by color-word Stroop stimuli (Experiment 3). The present findings extend our understanding of how mental imagery influences the allocation of attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information-processing biases such as attentional, interpretation, and memory biases are believed to play a role in exacerbating and maintaining chronic pain (CP). Evidence suggests that individuals with CP show attentional bias toward pain-related information. However, the selective attentional processes that underpin this bias are not always well outlined in the literature. To improve current understanding, a systematic review was performed using a descriptive synthesis of reaction time-based studies. A random-effects meta-analysis was added to explore whether the results of previous meta-analyses would be confirmed using studies with a larger sample size. For this review, 2008 studies were screened from 4 databases, of which 34 (participant n = 3154) were included in the review and a subset of 15 (participant n = 1339) were included in the meta-analysis. Review results were summarised by producing a descriptive synthesis for all studies. Meta-analysis results indicated a mild significant attentional bias toward sensory pain-related information (k = 15, g = 0.28, 95% CI [0.16, 0.39], I2 = 43.2%, P = 0.038), and preliminary evidence of significant moderate bias towards affective pain-related information (k = 3, g = 0.48, 95% CI [0.23, 0.72], I2 = 7.1%, P = 0.341) for CP groups compared with control groups. We explored the main tasks, stimuli, and CP subtypes used to address attentional biases and related processes. However, variation across studies did not allow for a decisive conclusion about the role of stimulus, task type, or related attentional processes. In addition, a table of CP attention-related models was produced and tested for reliability. Finally, other results and recommendations are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Stroop test represents a widely used task in basic and clinical research for approaching the cognitive system functioning in humans. However, a clear overview of the neurophysiological signatures associated with the different sub-domains of this task remains controversial. In the present study, we leveraged the EEG technique to explore the modulation of specific post-stimulus ERPs components during the Stroop test. Critically, to better disentangle the contribution of facilitation (i.e., faster color identification times for color-congruent Stroop words) and interference (i.e., longer color identification times for color-incongruent Stroop words) processes prompted by the Stroop test, we delivered congruent and incongruent trials in two separate experimental blocks, each including the respective neutral condition. Thanks to this methodological manipulation, we were able to clearly dissociate the two sub-processes. Electrophysiological results suggest specific markers of brain activity for the facilitation and the interference effects. Indeed, distinctive Stroop-related ERPs (i.e., the P3, the N450, and the LPC) were differently modulated in the two sub-processes. Collectively, we provide evidence of selected brain activities involved in the reactive stage of processing associated with the Stroop effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive control serves a crucial role in human higher mental functions. The Dual Mechanisms of Control theoretical framework provides a unifying account that decomposes cognitive control into two qualitatively distinct mechanisms—proactive control and reactive control. Here, we describe the Dual Mechanisms of Cognitive Control (DMCC) task battery, which was developed to probe cognitive control modes in a theoretically targeted manner, along with detailed descriptions of the experimental manipulations used to encourage shifts to proactive or reactive mode in each of four prototypical domains of cognition: selective attention, context processing, multitasking, and working memory. We present results from this task battery, conducted from a large (N > 100), online sample that rigorously evaluates the group effects of these manipulations in primary indices of proactive and reactive control, establishing the validity of the battery in providing dissociable yet convergent measures of the two cognitive control modes. The DMCC battery may be a useful tool for the research community to examine cognitive control in a theoretically targeted manner across different individuals and groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mental fatigue can significantly impair physical performance during sports practice. However, previous studies have not analyzed the impact of combining High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) with a cognitive task on physical performance. In this line, we developed the present research to investigate the specific aspects of mental and physical fatigue as well as the potential impact of combining HIIT with a cognitive task. Therefore, the objective of this study was to compare mental and physical fatigue indicators between single HIIT and an incongruent Stroop task added to the HIIT protocol. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 32 tennis players (25 men and 7 women, mean age = 21.40). Two HIIT sessions were performed: (1) one with the incongruent Stroop task presented during rests, and (2) another without the Stroop task during rests. Mental fatigue, mental load, and wellness were measured. Additionally, mean and maximum heart rate, mean and peak speed, and heart rate variability through RMSSD were recorded using a heart rate monitor. Mann-Whitney U tests and Wilcoxon tests were performed to explore differences between during-session loads and pre- and post-HIITs. The results showed that mixed HIIT with the incongruent Stroop task caused higher increases in mental fatigue (p = 0.04) and the ratio of perceived exertion (p = 0.001) from pre- to post-HIIT. However, no significant differences in external (speed) and internal (heart rate) factors were observed between the protocols. This suggests that subjective feelings of physical exertion increased significantly due to mental fatigue. However, it did not decrease the physical workload during HIIT for tennis players. Therefore, incorporating short periods of the incongruent Stroop task during HIIT could be used to develop tolerance to mental fatigue without a decrease in the workload. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the standard Proportion-Congruent (PC) paradigm, performance is compared between a list containing mostly congruent (MC) stimuli (e.g., the word RED in the color red in the Stroop task; Stroop, 1935) and a list containing mostly incongruent (MI) stimuli (e.g., the word BLUE in red). The PC effect, the finding that the congruency effect (i.e., the latency difference between incongruent and congruent stimuli) is typically larger in an MC list, has been interpreted by the popular conflict-monitoring account (Botvinick et al., 2001) as reflecting a proactive process whereby attention to task-relevant information is adapted based on how frequently conflict from task-irrelevant information arises. Recently, however, alternative accounts of the PC effect have emerged that assume either that the PC effect reflects processes other than proactive conflict adaptation (e.g., stimulus-response contingency learning) or that proactive conflict adaptation is only engaged as a last resort (e.g., when contingency learning cannot be used to minimize interference). We examined these ideas in three experiments in which proactive conflict adaptation could be evaluated independently from processes that are normally confounded with it in the PC paradigm, while still allowing those processes, particularly contingency learning, to be used to minimize interference. Consistent with the conflict-monitoring account of the PC effect, but inconsistent with all the alternative accounts of the PC effect, evidence for proactive conflict adaptation emerged in all experiments. Although multiple processes may be engaged in the PC paradigm, this paradigm remains a valid tool for examining proactive conflict adaptation, its typical use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Stroop paradigm is widely used in the executive functions assessment. This study investigated the use of tasks based on the Stroop paradigm in national studies published between 2000 and 2022, by doing a scope review. Empirical studies were selected in the following databases: PubMed, SciELO Brazil, LILACS, PePSIC, Index Psi Periódicos, Index Psi Teses, Biblioteca Digital Brasileira de Teses e Dissertações (BDTD) and Portal Capes de Teses e Dissertações. From the initial 1448 studies found, 147 were selected (90 theses/dissertations and 57 articles). Most articles were published in psychology and psychiatry journals, and the construct most targeted by the tasks was inhibitory control. Four versions were identified, and the classic Stroop Colors and Word test was the most used one (124 studies). Different scores were reported. There were few psychometric studies and few studies with task norms. Computerized versions are still little used. The review helps to outline the versions used at the national context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Stroop task, congruency effects are typically larger forcolor words presented mainly in their congruent color than forcolor words presented mainly in incongruent colors.However, the nature of this item-specific proportioncongruent (ISPC) effect is debated: It might be produced byeither conflict-adaptation processes (e.g., focus attention totask-relevant information when the word BLUE appears)and/or a more general contingency-learning process (e.g.,anticipate a green response when the word BLUE appears).We re-examined the role of conflict-adaptation processes inthis paradigm in two experiments. In both experiments, aconflict-adaptation effect emerged on stimuli matched oncontingency. Further, in Experiment 2, we found separateeffects of adaptation to the frequency of conflict specific tothe color and word dimensions of individual stimuli. Theseresults challenge the contingency-learning account of theISPC effect and suggest that conflict-adaptation processes inthis paradigm may depend on both task-relevant and task-irrelevant information.

When viewing familiar stimuli (e.g., common words), processing is highly automatized such that it can interfere with the processing of incompatible sensory information. At least two mechanisms may help mitigate this interference. Early selection accounts posit that attentional processes filter out distracting sensory information to avoid conflict. Alternatively, late selection accounts hold that all sensory inputs receive full semantic analysis and that frontal executive mechanisms are recruited to resolve conflict. To test how these mechanisms operate to overcome conflict induced by highly automatized processing, we developed a novel version of the color-word Stroop task, where targets and distractors were simultaneously flickered at different frequencies. We measured the quality of early sensory processing by assessing the amplitude of steady-state visually evoked potentials (SSVEPs) elicited by targets and distractors. We also indexed frontal executive processes by assessing changes in frontal theta oscillations induced by color-word incongruency. We found that target- and distractor-related SSVEPs were not modulated by changes in the level of conflict whereas frontal theta activity increased on high compared to low conflict trials. These results suggest that frontal executive processes play a more dominant role in mitigating cognitive interference driven by the automatic tendency to process highly familiar stimuli.

Previous studies have suggested that performance-contingent reward can modulate cognitive control by biasing irrelevant location-response associations in the Simon task. However, the influence of reward in the case of irrelevant words (Stroop task) or irrelevant flankers (Eriksen Flanker task) remains unclear. Across two preregistered experiments, the present study investigated the influence of reward on conflict processing with different types of distractors. Conflict effects on mean reaction time (RT) were reduced in the Simon task (Experiments 1 and 2) when incongruent versus congruent trials were rewarded, and this modulating effect of reward on conflict processing was also observed in the Eriksen flanker task (Experiment 2), but not in the Stroop task (Experiment 1). We propose that cognitive control adjustments to distractor-specific reward contingencies can be generalized across distractor types producing both perceptual-related (Flanker task) and motor-related (Simon task) conflict, but, if any, to a limited degree when distractors produce additional higher-level task conflict (Stroop task). In addition, distributional RT analyses (delta plots) revealed that rewarded distractor-response associations modulate cognitive control not only via biasing the strength (Simon and Eriksen tasks) but also the time-course of suppressing distractor processing (Eriksen task). Overall, the present study dissociated distractor-general and distractor-specific effects of reward on cognitive control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]