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2. Global data set of long-term summertime vertical temperature profiles in 153 lakes

Author

Pilla, Rachel M, Mette, Elizabeth M, Williamson, Craig E, Adamovich, Boris V, Adrian, Rita, Anneville, Orlane, Balseiro, Esteban, Ban, Syuhei, Chandra, Sudeep, Colom-Montero, William, Devlin, Shawn P, Dix, Margaret A, Dokulil, Martin T, Feldsine, Natalie A, Feuchtmayr, Heidrun, Fogarty, Natalie K, Gaiser, Evelyn E, Girdner, Scott F, González, María J, Hambright, K David, Hamilton, David P, Havens, Karl, Hessen, Dag O, Hetzenauer, Harald, Higgins, Scott N, Huttula, Timo H, Huuskonen, Hannu, Isles, Peter DF, Joehnk, Klaus D, Keller, Wendel Bill, Klug, Jen, Knoll, Lesley B, Korhonen, Johanna, Korovchinsky, Nikolai M, Köster, Oliver, Kraemer, Benjamin M, Leavitt, Peter R, Leoni, Barbara, Lepori, Fabio, Lepskaya, Ekaterina V, Lottig, Noah R, Luger, Martin S, Maberly, Stephen C, MacIntyre, Sally, McBride, Chris, McIntyre, Peter, Melles, Stephanie J, Modenutti, Beatriz, Müller-Navarra, Dörthe C, Pacholski, Laura, Paterson, Andrew M, Pierson, Don C, Pislegina, Helen V, Plisnier, Pierre-Denis, Richardson, David C, Rimmer, Alon, Rogora, Michela, Rogozin, Denis Y, Rusak, James A, Rusanovskaya, Olga O, Sadro, Steve, Salmaso, Nico, Saros, Jasmine E, Sarvala, Jouko, Saulnier-Talbot, Émilie, Schindler, Daniel E, Shimaraeva, Svetlana V, Silow, Eugene A, Sitoki, Lewis M, Sommaruga, Ruben, Straile, Dietmar, Strock, Kristin E, Swain, Hilary, Tallant, Jason M, Thiery, Wim, Timofeyev, Maxim A, Tolomeev, Alexander P, Tominaga, Koji, Vanni, Michael J, Verburg, Piet, Vinebrooke, Rolf D, Wanzenböck, Josef, Weathers, Kathleen, Weyhenmeyer, Gesa A, Zadereev, Egor S, and Zhukova, Tatyana V

Abstract

Climate change and other anthropogenic stressors have led to long-term changes in the thermal structure, including surface temperatures, deepwater temperatures, and vertical thermal gradients, in many lakes around the world. Though many studies highlight warming of surface water temperatures in lakes worldwide, less is known about long-term trends in full vertical thermal structure and deepwater temperatures, which have been changing less consistently in both direction and magnitude. Here, we present a globally-expansive data set of summertime in-situ vertical temperature profiles from 153 lakes, with one time series beginning as early as 1894. We also compiled lake geographic, morphometric, and water quality variables that can influence vertical thermal structure through a variety of potential mechanisms in these lakes. These long-term time series of vertical temperature profiles and corresponding lake characteristics serve as valuable data to help understand changes and drivers of lake thermal structure in a time of rapid global and ecological change.

Published
2021

3. Deeper waters are changing less consistently than surface waters in a global analysis of 102 lakes

Author

Pilla, Rachel M, Williamson, Craig E, Adamovich, Boris V, Adrian, Rita, Anneville, Orlane, Chandra, Sudeep, Colom-Montero, William, Devlin, Shawn P, Dix, Margaret A, Dokulil, Martin T, Gaiser, Evelyn E, Girdner, Scott F, Hambright, K David, Hamilton, David P, Havens, Karl, Hessen, Dag O, Higgins, Scott N, Huttula, Timo H, Huuskonen, Hannu, Isles, Peter DF, Joehnk, Klaus D, Jones, Ian D, Keller, Wendel Bill, Knoll, Lesley B, Korhonen, Johanna, Kraemer, Benjamin M, Leavitt, Peter R, Lepori, Fabio, Luger, Martin S, Maberly, Stephen C, Melack, John M, Melles, Stephanie J, Müller-Navarra, Dörthe C, Pierson, Don C, Pislegina, Helen V, Plisnier, Pierre-Denis, Richardson, David C, Rimmer, Alon, Rogora, Michela, Rusak, James A, Sadro, Steven, Salmaso, Nico, Saros, Jasmine E, Saulnier-Talbot, Émilie, Schindler, Daniel E, Schmid, Martin, Shimaraeva, Svetlana V, Silow, Eugene A, Sitoki, Lewis M, Sommaruga, Ruben, Straile, Dietmar, Strock, Kristin E, Thiery, Wim, Timofeyev, Maxim A, Verburg, Piet, Vinebrooke, Rolf D, Weyhenmeyer, Gesa A, and Zadereev, Egor

Abstract

Globally, lake surface water temperatures have warmed rapidly relative to air temperatures, but changes in deepwater temperatures and vertical thermal structure are still largely unknown. We have compiled the most comprehensive data set to date of long-term (1970-2009) summertime vertical temperature profiles in lakes across the world to examine trends and drivers of whole-lake vertical thermal structure. We found significant increases in surface water temperatures across lakes at an average rate of + 0.37 °C decade-1, comparable to changes reported previously for other lakes, and similarly consistent trends of increasing water column stability (+ 0.08 kg m-3 decade-1). In contrast, however, deepwater temperature trends showed little change on average (+ 0.06 °C decade-1), but had high variability across lakes, with trends in individual lakes ranging from - 0.68 °C decade-1 to + 0.65 °C decade-1. The variability in deepwater temperature trends was not explained by trends in either surface water temperatures or thermal stability within lakes, and only 8.4% was explained by lake thermal region or local lake characteristics in a random forest analysis. These findings suggest that external drivers beyond our tested lake characteristics are important in explaining long-term trends in thermal structure, such as local to regional climate patterns or additional external anthropogenic influences.

Published
2020

12. Global data set of long-term summertime vertical temperature profiles in 153 lakes

Author

Pilla, Rachel M., Mette, Elizabeth M., Williamson, Craig E., Adamovich, Boris V., Adrian, Rita, Anneville, Orlane, Balseiro, Esteban, Ban, Syuhei, Chandra, Sudeep, Colom-Montero, William, Devlin, Shawn P., Dix, Margaret A., Dokulil, Martin T., Feldsine, Natalie A., Feuchtmayr, Heidrun, Fogarty, Natalie K., Gaiser, Evelyn E., Girdner, Scott F., González, María J., Hambright, K. David, Hamilton, David P., Havens, Karl, Hessen, Dag O., Hetzenauer, Harald, Higgins, Scott N., Huttula, Timo H., Huuskonen, Hannu, Isles, Peter D.F., Joehnk, Klaus D., Keller, Wendel Bill, Klug, Jen, Knoll, Lesley B., Korhonen, Johanna, Korovchinsky, Nikolai M., Köster, Oliver, Kraemer, Benjamin M., Leavitt, Peter R., Leoni, Barbara, Lepori, Fabio, Lepskaya, Ekaterina V., Lottig, Noah R., Luger, Martin S., Maberly, Stephen, MacIntyre, Sally, McBride, Chris, McIntyre, Peter, Melles, Stephanie J., Modenutti, Beatriz, Müller-Navarra, Dörthe C., Pacholski, Laura, Paterson, Andrew M., Pierson, Don C., Pislegina, Helen V., Plisnier, Pierre-Denis, Richardson, David C., Rimmer, Alon, Rogora, Michela, Rogozin, Denis Y., Rusak, James A., Rusanovskaya, Olga O., Sadro, Steve, Salmaso, Nico, Saros, Jasmine E., Sarvala, Jouko, Saulnier-Talbot, Émilie, Schindler, Daniel E., Shimaraeva, Svetlana V., Silow, Eugene A., Sitoki, Lewis M., Sommaruga, Ruben, Straile, Dietmar, Strock, Kristin E., Swain, Hilary, Tallant, Jason M., Thiery, Wim, Timofeyev, Maxim A., Tolomeev, Alexander P., Tominaga, Koji, Vanni, Michael J., Verburg, Piet, Vinebrooke, Rolf D., Wanzenböck, Josef, Weathers, Kathleen, Weyhenmeyer, Gesa A., Zadereev, Egor S., Zhukova, Tatyana V., Pilla, Rachel M., Mette, Elizabeth M., Williamson, Craig E., Adamovich, Boris V., Adrian, Rita, Anneville, Orlane, Balseiro, Esteban, Ban, Syuhei, Chandra, Sudeep, Colom-Montero, William, Devlin, Shawn P., Dix, Margaret A., Dokulil, Martin T., Feldsine, Natalie A., Feuchtmayr, Heidrun, Fogarty, Natalie K., Gaiser, Evelyn E., Girdner, Scott F., González, María J., Hambright, K. David, Hamilton, David P., Havens, Karl, Hessen, Dag O., Hetzenauer, Harald, Higgins, Scott N., Huttula, Timo H., Huuskonen, Hannu, Isles, Peter D.F., Joehnk, Klaus D., Keller, Wendel Bill, Klug, Jen, Knoll, Lesley B., Korhonen, Johanna, Korovchinsky, Nikolai M., Köster, Oliver, Kraemer, Benjamin M., Leavitt, Peter R., Leoni, Barbara, Lepori, Fabio, Lepskaya, Ekaterina V., Lottig, Noah R., Luger, Martin S., Maberly, Stephen, MacIntyre, Sally, McBride, Chris, McIntyre, Peter, Melles, Stephanie J., Modenutti, Beatriz, Müller-Navarra, Dörthe C., Pacholski, Laura, Paterson, Andrew M., Pierson, Don C., Pislegina, Helen V., Plisnier, Pierre-Denis, Richardson, David C., Rimmer, Alon, Rogora, Michela, Rogozin, Denis Y., Rusak, James A., Rusanovskaya, Olga O., Sadro, Steve, Salmaso, Nico, Saros, Jasmine E., Sarvala, Jouko, Saulnier-Talbot, Émilie, Schindler, Daniel E., Shimaraeva, Svetlana V., Silow, Eugene A., Sitoki, Lewis M., Sommaruga, Ruben, Straile, Dietmar, Strock, Kristin E., Swain, Hilary, Tallant, Jason M., Thiery, Wim, Timofeyev, Maxim A., Tolomeev, Alexander P., Tominaga, Koji, Vanni, Michael J., Verburg, Piet, Vinebrooke, Rolf D., Wanzenböck, Josef, Weathers, Kathleen, Weyhenmeyer, Gesa A., Zadereev, Egor S., and Zhukova, Tatyana V.

Abstract

Climate change and other anthropogenic stressors have led to long-term changes in the thermal structure, including surface temperatures, deepwater temperatures, and vertical thermal gradients, in many lakes around the world. Though many studies highlight warming of surface water temperatures in lakes worldwide, less is known about long-term trends in full vertical thermal structure and deepwater temperatures, which have been changing less consistently in both direction and magnitude. Here, we present a globally-expansive data set of summertime in-situ vertical temperature profiles from 153 lakes, with one time series beginning as early as 1894. We also compiled lake geographic, morphometric, and water quality variables that can influence vertical thermal structure through a variety of potential mechanisms in these lakes. These long-term time series of vertical temperature profiles and corresponding lake characteristics serve as valuable data to help understand changes and drivers of lake thermal structure in a time of rapid global and ecological change.

Published
2021

15. Deeper waters are changing less consistently than surface waters in a global analysis of 102 lakes

Author

Pilla, Rachel M., Williamson, Craig E., Adamovich, Boris V., Adrian, Rita, Anneville, Orlane, Chandra, Sudeep, Colom-Montero, William, Devlin, Shawn P., Dix, Margaret A., Dokulil, Martin T., Gaiser, Evelyn E., Girdner, Scott F., Hambright, K. David, Hamilton, David P., Havens, Karl, Hessen, Dag O., Higgins, Scott N., Huttula, Timo H., Huuskonen, Hannu, Isles, Peter D. F., Joehnk, Klaus D., Jones, Ian D., Keller, Wendel Bill, Knoll, Lesley B., Korhonen, Johanna, Kraemer, Benjamin M., Leavitt, Peter R., Lepori, Fabio, Luger, Martin S., Maberly, Stephen C., Melack, John M., Melles, Stephanie J., Müller-Navarra, Dörthe C., Pierson, Don C., Pislegina, Helen V., Plisnier, Pierre-Denis, Richardson, David C., Rimmer, Alon, Rogora, Michela, Rusak, James A., Sadro, Steven, Salmaso, Nico, Saros, Jasmine E., Saulnier-Talbot, Émilie, Schindler, Daniel E., Schmid, Martin, Shimaraeva, Svetlana V., Silow, Eugene A., Sitoki, Lewis M., Sommaruga, Ruben, Straile, Dietmar, Strock, Kristin E., Thiery, Wim, Timofeyev, Maxim A., Verburg, Piet, Vinebrooke, Rolf D., Weyhenmeyer, Gesa A., Zadereev, Egor, Pilla, Rachel M., Williamson, Craig E., Adamovich, Boris V., Adrian, Rita, Anneville, Orlane, Chandra, Sudeep, Colom-Montero, William, Devlin, Shawn P., Dix, Margaret A., Dokulil, Martin T., Gaiser, Evelyn E., Girdner, Scott F., Hambright, K. David, Hamilton, David P., Havens, Karl, Hessen, Dag O., Higgins, Scott N., Huttula, Timo H., Huuskonen, Hannu, Isles, Peter D. F., Joehnk, Klaus D., Jones, Ian D., Keller, Wendel Bill, Knoll, Lesley B., Korhonen, Johanna, Kraemer, Benjamin M., Leavitt, Peter R., Lepori, Fabio, Luger, Martin S., Maberly, Stephen C., Melack, John M., Melles, Stephanie J., Müller-Navarra, Dörthe C., Pierson, Don C., Pislegina, Helen V., Plisnier, Pierre-Denis, Richardson, David C., Rimmer, Alon, Rogora, Michela, Rusak, James A., Sadro, Steven, Salmaso, Nico, Saros, Jasmine E., Saulnier-Talbot, Émilie, Schindler, Daniel E., Schmid, Martin, Shimaraeva, Svetlana V., Silow, Eugene A., Sitoki, Lewis M., Sommaruga, Ruben, Straile, Dietmar, Strock, Kristin E., Thiery, Wim, Timofeyev, Maxim A., Verburg, Piet, Vinebrooke, Rolf D., Weyhenmeyer, Gesa A., and Zadereev, Egor

Abstract

Globally, lake surface water temperatures have warmed rapidly relative to air temperatures, but changes in deepwater temperatures and vertical thermal structure are still largely unknown. We have compiled the most comprehensive data set to date of long-term (1970–2009) summertime vertical temperature profiles in lakes across the world to examine trends and drivers of whole-lake vertical thermal structure. We found significant increases in surface water temperatures across lakes at an average rate of + 0.37 °C decade−1, comparable to changes reported previously for other lakes, and similarly consistent trends of increasing water column stability (+ 0.08 kg m−3 decade−1). In contrast, however, deepwater temperature trends showed little change on average (+ 0.06 °C decade−1), but had high variability across lakes, with trends in individual lakes ranging from − 0.68 °C decade−1 to + 0.65 °C decade−1. The variability in deepwater temperature trends was not explained by trends in either surface water temperatures or thermal stability within lakes, and only 8.4% was explained by lake thermal region or local lake characteristics in a random forest analysis. These findings suggest that external drivers beyond our tested lake characteristics are important in explaining long-term trends in thermal structure, such as local to regional climate patterns or additional external anthropogenic influences.

Published
2020
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17. Transparency, Geomorphology and Mixing Regime Explain Variability in Trends in Lake Temperature and Stratification across Northeastern North America (1975–2014)

Author

Richardson, David C., Melles, Stephanie J., Pilla, Rachel M., Hetherington, Amy L., Knoll, Lesley B., Williamson, Craig E., Kraemer, Benjamin M., Jackson, James R., Long, Elizabeth C., Moore, Karen, Rudstam, Lars G., Rusak, James A., Saros, Jasmine E., Sharma, Sapna, Strock, Kristin E., Weathers, Kathleen C., Wigdahl-Perry, Courtney R., Richardson, David C., Melles, Stephanie J., Pilla, Rachel M., Hetherington, Amy L., Knoll, Lesley B., Williamson, Craig E., Kraemer, Benjamin M., Jackson, James R., Long, Elizabeth C., Moore, Karen, Rudstam, Lars G., Rusak, James A., Saros, Jasmine E., Sharma, Sapna, Strock, Kristin E., Weathers, Kathleen C., and Wigdahl-Perry, Courtney R.

Abstract

Lake surface water temperatures are warming worldwide, raising concerns about the future integrity of valuable lake ecosystem services. In contrast to surface water temperatures, we know far less about what is happening to water temperature beneath the surface, where most organisms live. Moreover, we know little about which characteristics make lakes more or less sensitive to climate change and other environmental stressors. We examined changes in lake thermal structure for 231 lakes across northeastern North America (NENA), a region with an exceptionally high density of lakes. We determined how lake thermal structure has changed in recent decades (1975–2012) and assessed which lake characteristics are related to changes in lake thermal structure. In general, NENA lakes had increasing near-surface temperatures and thermal stratification strength. On average, changes in deepwater temperatures for the 231 lakes were not significantly different than zero, but individually, half of the lakes experienced warming and half cooling deepwater temperature through time. More transparent lakes (Secchi transparency >5 m) tended to have higher near-surface warming and greater increases in strength of thermal stratification than less transparent lakes. Whole-lake warming was greatest in polymictic lakes, where frequent summer mixing distributed heat throughout the water column. Lakes often function as important sentinels of climate change, but lake characteristics within and across regions modify the magnitude of the signal with important implications for lake biology, ecology and chemistry.

Published
2017
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18. Transparency, Geomorphology and Mixing Regime Explain Variability in Trends in Lake Temperature and Stratification across Northeastern North America (1975–2014)

Author

Biological Sciences, Richardson, David C., Melles, Stephanie J., Pilla, Rachel M., Hetherington, Amy L., Knoll, Lesley B., Williamson, Craig E., Kraemer, Benjamin M., Jackson, James R., Long, Elizabeth C., Moore, Karen, Rudstam, Lars G., Rusak, James A., Saros, Jasmine E., Sharma, Sapna, Strock, Kristin E., Weathers, Kathleen C., Wigdahl-Perry, Courtney R., Biological Sciences, Richardson, David C., Melles, Stephanie J., Pilla, Rachel M., Hetherington, Amy L., Knoll, Lesley B., Williamson, Craig E., Kraemer, Benjamin M., Jackson, James R., Long, Elizabeth C., Moore, Karen, Rudstam, Lars G., Rusak, James A., Saros, Jasmine E., Sharma, Sapna, Strock, Kristin E., Weathers, Kathleen C., and Wigdahl-Perry, Courtney R.

Abstract

Lake surface water temperatures are warming worldwide, raising concerns about the future integrity of valuable lake ecosystem services. In contrast to surface water temperatures, we know far less about what is happening to water temperature beneath the surface, where most organisms live. Moreover, we know little about which characteristics make lakes more or less sensitive to climate change and other environmental stressors. We examined changes in lake thermal structure for 231 lakes across northeastern North America (NENA), a region with an exceptionally high density of lakes. We determined how lake thermal structure has changed in recent decades (1975–2012) and assessed which lake characteristics are related to changes in lake thermal structure. In general, NENA lakes had increasing near-surface temperatures and thermal stratification strength. On average, changes in deepwater temperatures for the 231 lakes were not significantly different than zero, but individually, half of the lakes experienced warming and half cooling deepwater temperature through time. More transparent lakes (Secchi transparency >5 m) tended to have higher near-surface warming and greater increases in strength of thermal stratification than less transparent lakes. Whole-lake warming was greatest in polymictic lakes, where frequent summer mixing distributed heat throughout the water column. Lakes often function as important sentinels of climate change, but lake characteristics within and across regions modify the magnitude of the signal with important implications for lake biology, ecology and chemistry.

Published
2017

21. Response of boreal lakes to changing wind strength: Coherent physical changes across two large lakes but varying effects on primary producers over the 20th century.

Author

Strock, Kristin E., Saros, Jasmine E., McGowan, Suzanne, Edlund, Mark B., and Engstrom, Daniel R.

Subjects
*LAKES, *WIND speed, *DIATOMS, *LIMNOLOGY, *NATIONAL parks & reserves, *WINDS, *TWENTIETH century
Abstract

Near‐surface wind speeds have changed over recent decades, raising questions about the extent to which these changes are altering the vertical thermal structure of lakes and affecting lake food webs. Neo‐ and paleolimnological techniques were used to assess wind‐driven changes in lake thermal habitat and resulting effects on primary producers in two lakes in Isle Royale National Park, an island archipelago located in Lake Superior, where wind speed has increased in recent decades. Responses in Siskiwit Lake, a large (16 km2 surface area), deep (Zmax = 49 m), oligotrophic lake, were compared to those of Lake Desor, a moderately large (4.3 km2) but shallower (Zmax = 13 m), mesotrophic lake. High‐frequency sensor data suggested that changes in wind speed affected epilimnion thickness in both lakes synchronously (ρ = 0.7, p < 0.001). Diatom‐inferred mixing depths suggested a coherent shift in both lakes to deeper mixing (an increase of 3 and 6 m) since 1920 (ρ = 0.8), which was correlated with an increase in regional wind speed during the 20th century at the decadal‐scale in Lake Desor and Siskiwit Lake (ρ = 0.6 and 0.4, respectively). In Lake Desor, algal biomass declined as mixing deepened from 1920 to 1980, and then cyanobacteria and cryptophyte pigments increased from 1980 to present, a period of inferred stable and deep mixing. Algal pigment concentrations in Siskiwit Lake were unchanged as mixing depth deepened. Although changes in wind speed altered lake physical structure similarly, the ecological consequences of these changes differed between lakes and were most likely influenced by lake‐specific variability in nutrient and light availability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Published
2019
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23. Climate Is Variable, but Is Our Science?

Author

Coble, Ashley A., primary, Asch, Rebecca G., additional, Rivero‐Calle, Sara, additional, Heerhartz, Sarah M., additional, Holding, Johnna M., additional, Kremer, Colin T., additional, Finiguerra, Michael, additional, and Strock, Kristin E., additional

Published
2016
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24. Nitrogen deposition to lakes in national parks of the western Great Lakes region: Isotopic signatures, watershed retention, and algal shifts

Author

Hobbs, William O., primary, Lafrancois, Brenda Moraska, additional, Stottlemyer, Robert, additional, Toczydlowski, David, additional, Engstrom, Daniel R., additional, Edlund, Mark B., additional, Almendinger, James E., additional, Strock, Kristin E., additional, VanderMeulen, David, additional, Elias, Joan E., additional, and Saros, Jasmine E., additional

Published
2016
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27. Deeper waters are changing less consistently than surface waters in a global analysis of 102 lakes

Author

Adamovich, Boris V., Adrian, Rita, Anneville, Orlane, Chandra, Sudeep, Colom-Montero, William, Devlin, Shawn P., Dix, Margaret A., Dokulil, Martin T., Gaiser, Evelyn E., Girdner, Scott F., Hambright, K. David, Hamilton, David P., Havens, Karl E., Hessen, Dag O., Higgins, Scott, Huttula, Timo, Huuskonen, Hannu, Isles, Peter D.F., Joehnk, Klaus D., Jones, Ian, Keller, Wendel, Knoll, Lesley B., Korhonen, Johanna, Kraemer, Benjamin M., Leavitt, Peter R., Lepori, Fabio, Luger, Martin S., Maberly, Stephen, Melack, John M., Melles, Stephanie J., Müller-Navarra, Dörthe C., Pierson, Donald, Pislegina, Helena V., Plisnier, Pierre-Denis, Richardson, David C., Rogora, Michela, Rusak, James A., Sadro, Steven, Salmaso, Nico, Saros, Jasmine E., Saulnier-Talbot, Emilie, Schindler, Daniel E., Schmid, Martin, Shimaraeva, Svetlana V., Silow, Eugene A., Sitoki, Lewis M., Sommaruga, Ruben, Straile, Dietmar, Strock, Kristin E., Thiery, Wim, Verburg, Piet, Vinebrooke, Rolf D., Weyhenmeyer, Gesa A., and Zadereev, Egor S.

Subjects
13. Climate action, Limnology, Freshwater ecology, 6. Clean water
Abstract

Globally, lake surface water temperatures have warmed rapidly relative to air temperatures, but changes in deepwater temperatures and vertical thermal structure are still largely unknown. We have compiled the most comprehensive data set to date of long-term (1970–2009) summertime vertical temperature profiles in lakes across the world to examine trends and drivers of whole-lake vertical thermal structure. We found significant increases in surface water temperatures across lakes at an average rate of + 0.37 °C decade−1, comparable to changes reported previously for other lakes, and similarly consistent trends of increasing water column stability (+ 0.08 kg m−3 decade−1). In contrast, however, deepwater temperature trends showed little change on average (+ 0.06 °C decade−1), but had high variability across lakes, with trends in individual lakes ranging from − 0.68 °C decade−1 to + 0.65 °C decade−1. The variability in deepwater temperature trends was not explained by trends in either surface water temperatures or thermal stability within lakes, and only 8.4% was explained by lake thermal region or local lake characteristics in a random forest analysis. These findings suggest that external drivers beyond our tested lake characteristics are important in explaining long-term trends in thermal structure, such as local to regional climate patterns or additional external anthropogenic influences., Scientific Reports, 10 (1), ISSN:2045-2322

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