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The present study was conducted to evaluate the effect of histamine and to characterise its receptor subtypes in reticular groove (RG) smooth muscle of adult goats. The studies were done using floor and lip regions of RG. We used tension experiments on smooth muscle of RG isolated from adult goat for functional characterisation of H1 and H2 receptors. Western blotting and immunohistochemistry experiments were conducted for molecular characterisation of these receptors. Histamine evoked concentration-dependent contraction of isolated RG circular and longitudinal smooth muscle preparation. Pyrilamine antagonised the action of histamine. Histamine did not induce any relaxant effect on RG preparations. Additionally, cimetidine did not produce any significant effect on histamine-induced response. Non-selective histaminic receptor antagonist cyproheptadine attenuated the contraction response to histamine in the smooth muscle. Molecular characterisation and localisation of H1 and H2 receptor proteins confirmed the presence of these receptors in RG. It is most likely that histamine-induced contractile effect in RG smooth muscle of goats is mediated by H1 histaminic receptors.

The study investigated the effect of in-feed administration of dried thyme leaf and celery seed mixture (at 1 : 1 DM basis) compared with salinomycin ionophore on milk production and milk nutritive value of Barki ewes. Thirty ewes (37.5 ± 1.8 kg), divided into 3 treatment groups, were fed: (1) a complete control diet comprising concentrates and fodder maize (Zea mays L.) at 60 : 40 dry matter basis, (2) the control diet plus 20 g of thyme and celery mixture supplementation and (3) the control diet supplemented with 1 g of salinomycin per ewe daily for 90 days. Inclusion of thyme–celery treatment increased (P < 0.05) weight gain, average daily gain, milk yield, milk component yields, and feed efficiency, without affecting milk composition. In addition, the thyme–celery treatment enhanced (P < 0.05) nutrient intake and digestibility, total ruminal volatile fatty acids, branched chain fatty acids, and acetate proportions and decreased ammonia-N concentration. Thyme–celery treatment increased (P < 0.05) serum glucose, thyroxine, and glutamate-pyruvate transaminase concentrations. It is concluded that the thyme and celery mixture (1 : 1 DM basis) at 20 g per lactating ewe daily can replace the salinomycin ionophore. Enhanced feed utilization and lactational performance as well as milk nutritive value for human consumption were observed with the natural additive mixture supplementation.

Background Transportation is necessary to introduce new breeds of goats to the farm and move the adult meat goat from the farm to the slaughterhouse. However, these actions may give rise to transport stress. Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are playing some important regulate roles during transport stress. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of transport stress on the pathological injury and HSPs expression in the stomach of goats. A total of three batches of Ganxi goats from western Jiangxi province were enrolled in this study. For each batch, twelve healthy adult male goats were randomly divided into three groups (four goats per batch and per group): Control group, stress group transported during 2 h and stress group transported during 6 h. Results Our results showed that the different degrees of stomach walls damage, with the change of expression levels of heat shock protein 27 (HSP27), heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) and heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), occurred after goats transportation. In rumen, the mRNA and protein expressions of HSP27 and HSP70 were increased after transport stress, but not HSP90. In reticulum, all three HSPs mRNA and protein levels were upregulated after 2 h transport, but decreased after 6 h transport. In omasum, HSP27 and HSP70 mRNA and protein were increased after transport stress, however, HSP90 mRNA level only had a slightly enhancement after transport stress. In abomasum, HSP70 and HSP90 mRNA and protein levels were increased after transport stress, but HSP27 was decreased after transport stress. Conclusions Taken together, these results revealed that the pathological changes in the gastric tissues and the stomach HSPs expression in goats are related to transport stress and duration. Moreover, this study also provides some new data to advocate reducing transport stress of goats and improving animal welfare.

The ruminant digestive system harbors a complex gut microbiome, which is poorly understood in the case of the four stomach compartments of yak. High-throughput sequencing and quantitative PCR were used to analyse microbial communities in the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum of six domesticated yak. The diversity of prokaryotes was higher in reticulum and omasum than in rumen and abomasum. Bacteroidetes predominated in the four stomach compartments, with abundance gradually decreasing in the trend rumen > reticulum > omasum > abomasum. Microorganism composition was different among the four compartments, all of which contained high levels of bacteria, methanogens, protozoa and anaerobic fungi. Some prokaryotic genera were associated with volatile fatty acids and pH. This study provides the first insights into the microorganism composition of four stomach compartments in yak, and may provide a foundation for future studies in this area.

The present research was conducted to evaluate the connection between the true digestibility of Phosphorus (TDP) in diet and bacterial community structure in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of goats. Twenty-eight Nubian goats were chosen and metabolic experiment was conducted to analyze TDP of research animals. Eight goats were grouped into the high digestibility of phosphorus (HP) phenotype, and another 8 were grouped into the low digestibility of phosphorus (LP) phenotype. And from the rumen, abomasum, jejunim, cecum and colon content of the goats, bacterial 16S rRNA gene amplicons were sequenced. In the rumen 239 genera belonging to 23 phyla, in abomasum 319 genera belonging to 30 phyla, in jejunum 248 genera belonging to 36,in colon 248 genera belonging to 25 phyla and in cecum 246 genera belonging to 23 phyla were noticed. In addition, there was a significant correlation between the TDP and the abundance of Ruminococcaceae_UCG-010, Ruminococcus_2, Ruminococcaceae_UCG-014, Selenomonas_1 and Prevotella in the rumen, Lachnospiraceae_ND3007_group, Saccharofermentans, Ruminococcus_1, Ruminococcaceae_UCG-014, Lachnospiraceae_XPB1014_group and Desulfovibrio in the abomasum, Prevotella, Clostridium_sensu_stricto_1, Fibrobacter, Desulfovibrio and Ruminococcus_2 in the jejunum, Ruminococcaceae_UCG-014 in the colon, and Desulfovibrio in the cecum. Present research trial recommended that the community of gastrointestinal microbiota is a factor affecting TDP in goats.

Amphistomes, commonly referred to as 'stomach' or 'rumen' flukes because of the localization of these flukes in the stomach of ruminants, are digenetic trematodes distinguished by the absence of an oral sucker and the position of the ventral sucker or acetabulum at the posterior end of the body. The body is characterized by leaf-like fleshy structure, pink or red in colour with a large posterior sucker. Amphistomes are an important group of parasites since they cause 'amphistomiasis' (variously known as paramphistomosis/amphistomosis), a serious disease of great economic importance in ruminants worldwide. These parasites have a broad spectrum of definitive hosts together with a wide geographical distribution. Though, they form a continuous evolutional lineage from fishes to mammals, amphistomes mainly inhabit the rumen and reticulum of ruminant mammals, while some species occur in the large intestine or parenteric sites of ruminants, pigs, equines and man.

Organic dairy cows in Denmark are often kept indoors during the winter and outside at least part time in the summer. Consequently, their diet changes by the season. We hypothesized that grazing might affect enteric CH 4 emissions due to changes in the nutrition, maintenance, and activity of the cows, and they might differentially respond to these factors. This study assessed the repeatability of enteric CH 4 emission measurements for Jersey cattle in a commercial organic dairy herd in Denmark. It also evaluated the effects of a gradual transition from indoor winter feeding to outdoor spring grazing. Further, it assessed the individual-level correlations between measurements during the consecutive feeding periods (phenotype × environment, P × E) as neither pedigrees nor genotypes were available to estimate a genotype by environment effect. Ninety-six mixed-parity lactating Jersey cows were monitored for 30 d before grazing and for 24 d while grazing. The cows spent 8 to 11 h grazing each day and had free access to an in-barn automatic milking system (AMS). For each visit to the AMS, milk yield was recorded and logged along with date and time. Monitoring equipment installed in the AMS feed bins continuously measured enteric CH 4 and CO 2 concentrations (ppm) using a noninvasive “sniffer” method. Raw enteric CH 4 and CO 2 concentrations and their ratio (CH 4 :CO 2 ) were derived from average concentrations measured during milking and per day for each cow. We used mixed models equations to estimate variance components and adjust for the fixed and random effects influencing the analyzed gas concentrations. Univariate models were used to precorrect the gas measurements for diurnal variation and to estimate the direct effect of grazing on the analyzed concentrations. A bivariate model was used to assess the correlation between the 2 periods (in-barn vs. grazing) for each gas concentration. Grazing had a weak P × E interaction for daily average CH 4 and CO 2 gas concentrations. Bivariate repeatability estimates for average CH 4 and CO 2 concentrations and CH 4 :CO 2 were 0.77 to 0.78, 0.73 to 0.80, and 0.26, respectively. Repeatability for CH 4 :CO 2 was low (0.26) but indicated some between-animal variation. In conclusion, grazing does not create significant shifts compared with indoor feeding in how animals rank for average CH 4 and CO 2 concentrations and CH 4 :CO 2 . We found no evidence that separate evaluation is needed to quantify enteric CH 4 and CO 2 emissions from Jersey cows during in-barn and grazing periods.

The red macroalgae (seaweed) Asparagopsis spp. has shown to reduce ruminant enteric methane (CH4) production up to 99% in vitro. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of Asparagopsis taxiformis on CH4 production (g/day per animal), yield (g CH4/kg dry matter intake (DMI)), and intensity (g CH4/kg ADG); average daily gain (ADG; kg gain/day), feed conversion efficiency (FCE; kg ADG/kg DMI), and carcass and meat quality in growing beef steers. Twenty-one Angus-Hereford beef steers were randomly allocated to one of three treatment groups: 0% (Control), 0.25% (Low), and 0.5% (High) A. taxiformis inclusion based on organic matter intake. Steers were fed 3 diets: high, medium, and low forage total mixed ration (TMR) representing life-stage diets of growing beef steers. The Low and High treatments over 147 days reduced enteric CH4 yield 45 and 68%, respectively. However, there was an interaction between TMR type and the magnitude of CH4 yield reduction. Supplementing low forage TMR reduced CH4 yield 69.8% (P P 2) yield (g H2/DMI) increased (P 2) yield (g CO2/DMI) increased 13.7% between Control and High treatments (P = 0.03). No differences were found in ADG, carcass quality, strip loin proximate analysis and shear force, or consumer taste preferences. DMI tended to decrease 8% (P = 0.08) in the Low treatment and DMI decreased 14% (P P = 0.06) and increased 14% in High (P 4 by A. taxiformis supplementation suggests that this is a viable feed additive to significantly decrease the carbon footprint of ruminant livestock and potentially increase production efficiency.

Bioactive polysaccharides and oligosaccharides (POSs) have been used as safe non-antibiotic alternatives in animal diets; however, only limited data are available on their effects in rumen manipulation. This study was undertaken to systematically evaluate and compare the efficacies of six different bioactive POSs (10g/kg diet) with respect to ruminal fermentation, feed digestibility, biohydrogenation and bacterial population using a rumen simulation technique. The experiment consisted of 4 independent 12-d incubation periods (each including 8 d for acclimation, followed with 4 d for sample collection). The results demonstrated that Lycium barbarum polysaccharide had no effect and Astragalus polysaccharide only increased the total VFA production. Chitooligosaccharide decreased the propionate proportion with a corresponding increase of acetate to propionate ratio. Fructooligosaccharide increased fatty acid biohydrogenation and the abundances of R. albus, B. fibrisolvens and S. ruminantium. Both Lentinan polysaccharide and xylooligosaccharide increased the total VFA production, fatty acid biohydrogenation and the abundance of B. fibrisolvens. In addition, Lentinan polysaccharide increased 48-h dietary protein degradation and the abundance of R. flavefaciens, while xylooligosaccharide increased 24-h dietary fiber degradation and the abundance of R. albus. In conclusion, bioactive POSs, especially Lentinan polysaccharide and xylooligosaccharide, can serve as potential feed additives to manipulate rumen fermentation.

This is the first integrated study of the effects on gastric secretion, inflammation and fundic mucins after infection with L3 T. circumcincta and in the very early period following transplantation of adult worms. At 3 months-of-age, 20 Coopworth lambs were infected intraruminally with 35,000 L3; infected animals were killed on Days 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30 post-infection and 6 controls on either Day 0 or 30 post-infection. Another 15 Romney cross lambs received 10,000 adult worms at 4-5 months-of-age though surgically-implanted abomasal cannulae and were killed after 6, 12, 24 and 72 hours; uninfected controls were also killed at 72 hours. Blood was collected at regular intervals from all animals for measurement of serum gastrin and pepsinogen and abomasal fluid for pH measurement from cannulated sheep. Tissues collected at necropsy were fixed in Bouin's fluid for light microscopy, immunocytochemistry and mucin staining and in Karnovsky's fluid for electron microscopy. Nodules around glands containing developing larvae were seen on Day 5 p.i., but generalised effects on secretion occurred only after parasite emergence and within hours after transplantation of adult worms. After L3 infection, there were maximum worm burdens on Days 10-15 post-infection, together with peak tissue eosinophilia, inhibition of gastric acid secretion, hypergastrinaemia, hyperpepsinogenaemia, loss of parietal cells, enlarged gastric pits containing less mucin and increased numbers of mucous neck cells. After adult transplantation, serum pepsinogen was significantly increased after 9 hours and serum gastrin after 18 hours. Parallel changes in host tissues and the numbers of parasites in the abomasal lumen suggest that luminal parasites, but not those in the tissues, are key drivers of the pathophysiology and inflammatory response in animals exposed to parasites for the first time. These results are consistent with initiation of the host response by parasite chemicals diffusing across the surface epithelium, possibly aided by components of ES products which increased permeability. Parietal cells appear to be a key target, resulting in secondary increases in serum gastrin, pit elongation, loss of surface mucins and inhibition of chief cell maturation. Inflammation occurs in parallel, and could either cause the pathology or exacerbate the direct effects of ES products.

Background An existing model for fourth-degree laceration repair uses beef tongue with plastic or vinyl tubing. This modified model substitutes beef tripe for the anal mucosa and chicken leg muscles for the anal sphincter muscle analogs to create a realistic model. Method Tripe is tunneled through the body of the trimmed beef tongue and sutured like an ostomy to simulate the anal canal. The tongue is incised toward the tripe "anal canal." Chicken leg muscles are tunneled from the incision out to the cut edges of the beef tongue to create anal sphincter muscle analogs. Procedures can be repeated on the opposite side. Two double-sided models can be made per tongue. Experience The model can be refrigerated or frozen and thawed before use. A fourth-degree laceration can be cut immediately before use. Materials were obtained at a local supermarket for $5-7 per half-tongue, double-sided model. Residents responded positively to the model and stated that animal tissue provided realistic haptic simulation. Conclusion The modified beef tongue model utilizing tripe and chicken leg muscles as anal mucosa and anal sphincter muscle analogs, respectively, provided excellent perceived haptic fidelity. Moreover, it is an innovative, inexpensive, and well-received teaching tool to augment resident education.

The objective of the current study was to measure reticuloruminal pH in cattle in a commercial feedlot setting to determine the incidence and extent of low reticuloruminal pH for steers and heifers as they transition to a high-concentrate finishing diet. Reticuloruminal pH was measured in 16 "mixed breed" steers (4 steers/pen with 4 pens) and 16 "mixed breed" heifers (4 heifers/pen with 4 pens) housed in commercial feedlot pens, with 227 ± 13 and 249 ± 6 cattle/pen cohort steers and heifers, respectively, for the diet transition period. Cattle were transitioned from a diet of 53.5% forage and 46.5% concentrate to a diet of 9.5% forage and 90.5% concentrate on a DM basis using a 40-d transition with 5 dietary steps with the diets containing 41.4, 44.8, 49.8, 52.5, 55.1, and 64.0% nonfibrous carbohydrate. In addition, wheat replaced barley as the grain source during the dietary transition. Reticuloruminal pH was measured using orally administered pH measurement devices that were retrieved at slaughter. Data were analyzed using a mixed model including the fixed effects of sex, diet, and the 2-way interaction to evaluate the effect of diet and sex and with the fixed effects of sex, diet, and day relative to each dietary change along with the 2- and 3-way interactions to evaluate temporal responses as a result of diet change. A repeated measures statement was included for the effect of day. Both the mean and minimum reticuloruminal pH values decreased as the proportion of concentrate in the diet increased (0.001). The area and duration that pH was5.6 increased with greater inclusion of concentrate in the diet (0.001). The number of cattle experiencing low reticuloruminal pH, defined as pH5.6 for180 min, increased with increasing concentrate, and by the end of the 40-d dietary transition, 83% of the cattle had experienced at least 1 bout of low reticuloruminal pH, with most experiencing between 1 and 3 bouts/diet. These data are interpreted to suggest that cattle are at high risk for experiencing low reticuloruminal pH during the dietary transition but that the extent of low reticuloruminal pH is mild. Moreover, the data suggest that the risk for low reticuloruminal pH increases with increasing proportion of concentrate in the diet. The results also suggest that susceptibility to low reticuloruminal pH may differ between steers and heifers.

The flow of protozoa from the reticulo-rumen is lower than expected, due to ability of protozoa to prevent washout through sequestration on feed particles and the rumen epithelium. In order to estimate the distribution of protozoa within the reticulo-rumen and passage to the omasum, Czerkawski (1987) developed a model containing pools for the rumen liquid phase, rumen solid phase, and the omasum. This model was used to estimate loss of protozoa in the omasum as well as the amount of protozoal protein available to the animal in the lower gut. A number of assumptions were incorporated into the model, some of which appear unsupported by current research. This paper represents an update, revision, and re-evaluation of Czerkawski's model, where the assumptions that all protozoa in the 'attached' phase are in solid digesta, and that protozoa only leave the rumen in the liquid, have been relaxed. Therefore, the revised model allows for sequestration of protozoa on the rumen epithelium and protozoal passage with particulate outflow. Using experimental observations with inputs within biological limits, the revised model and Czerkawski's original model were verified. The effect of diet on the model was then assessed using inputs from a 100% forage diet and a 35-65% concentrate diet. The extent of sequestration was also varied from complete sequestration, to partial sequestration, and no sequestration. A sensitivity analysis was conducted through a linear regression of perturbed mean inputs versus outputs. The results from the revised model indicate that within the reticulo-rumen, the concentrate diet has a greater fractional flow rate of protozoa from the liquid to solid phase, but a lesser fractional flow rate back to the liquid phase, compared to the forage diet. As well, the concentrate diet has a slower net growth rate of protozoa in the attached phase, compared to the forage diet. In the omasum, the forage diet has a less negative net growth rate, compared to the concentrate diet. The forage diet was also associated with smaller loss of protozoa from the omasum. There are limited data from the omasum to be incorporated into the revised model, especially for quantity of protozoa in the omasum. Further research on quantification of protozoa in the omasum could strengthen the predictions made by the model. Despite this, the revised model found a loss of protozoa in the omasum similar to that suggested by Czerkawski's original model 65-73% versus 66%. The revised model results indicate that efforts to increase protozoal flow to the duodenum should focus on reduced sequestration and increased outflow rate from the rumen, although more research is needed to quantify protozoa in the omasum, and to investigate the role of sequestration onto the wall of the reticulo-rumen.

To improve the biogas production from corn stovers, a new bionic reactor was designed and constructed. The bionic reactor simulated the rumen digestion of ruminants. The liquid was separated from corn stovers and refluxed into corn stovers again, which simulated the undigested particles separated from completely digested materials and fed back again for further degradation in ruminant stomach. Results showed that the bionic reactor was effective for anaerobic digestion of corn stovers. The liquid amount and its reflux showed an obvious positive correlation with biogas production. The highest biogas production rate was 21.6 ml/gVS-added d, and the total cumulative biogas production was 256.5 ml/gVS-added. The methane content in biogas ranged from 52.2% to 63.3%. The degradation of corn stovers were greatly enhanced through simulating the animal digestion mechanisms in this bionic reactor.

Clinical toxoplasmosis has been reported in many species of warm-blooded animals but is rare in camelids. Here we report acute fatal systemic toxoplasmosis involving heart, thyroid gland, stomach, intestine, diaphragm, kidneys, adrenal glands, and liver of a 13-mo-old llama (Llama glama). Many Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites were associated with tissue necrosis in multiple organs. Death was attributed to severe myocarditis. Ulcers associated with numerous tachyzoites were present in the C3 compartment of the stomach. Tissue cyst development was followed using bradyzoite-specific T. gondii antibodies. Individual intracellular, and groups of 2 or more, bradyzoites were identified in hepatocytes, biliary epithelium, myocardiocytes, lung, diaphragm, thyroid gland, spleen, and stomach. Lesions in the brain were a few microglial nodules and very early tissue cysts containing 1-3 bradyzoites. These observations suggest that the animal had acquired toxoplasmosis recently. Diagnosis was confirmed immunohistochemically by reaction with T. gondii -specific polyclonal rabbit serum but not with antibodies to the related protozoan Neospora caninum . Genetic typing using the DNA extracted from paraffin-embedded myocardium of llama and 10 PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers revealed a type II allele at the SAG1, SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, PK1 L358, and Apico loci; therefore, this isolate belongs to the ToxoDB PCR-RFLP genotype #1, which is most common in North America and Europe.

Computed tomographic (CT) images of the reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum of five healthy Holstein-Friesian bull calves were compared with anatomical transverse cadaver sections of the same calves. The calves were scanned in the transverse plane from the 5th thoracic vertebra to the sacrum six times three weeks apart from birth to 105 days of age. Multiplanar reconstruction was used to create images in sagittal and dorsal planes. After subjective assessment of various anatomical structures, the rumen, omasum and abomasum as well as the ruminal strata (gas cap, fibre mat and fluid phase) were measured. After the last CT scan, all calves were euthanised, and four were kept at -18 °C in sternal position for 14 days. Transverse sections 1.0 to 1.5 cm thick were made from two calves and dorsal and sagittal sections were made from one calf each using a band saw. The CT images and anatomical slices were compared and the structures on the CT images identified. Very clear CT images were obtained from the reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum and there was excellent agreement between images and anatomical slices.In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden die computertomographischen (CT) Befunde an Haube, Pansen, Psalter und Labmagen von 5 gesunden Kälbern von der Geburt bis zum Alter von 105 Tagen beschrieben und mit denjenigen der postmortalen Untersuchung verglichen. Die Kälber wurden in Abständen von 3 Wochen insgesamt 6 Mal computertomographisch untersucht. Die Untersuchung erfolgte in Transversalschnitten vom fünften Brustwirbel bis zum Sakrum. Mittels multiplanarer Rekonstruktion wurden die Strukturen auch in Sagittal- und Dorsalebenen dargestellt. Im Anschluss an die subjektive Beurteilung wurden verschiedene Strukturen, wie die Ausdehnung von Pansen, Psalter und Labmagen und diejenige der gasförmigen, flüssigen und festen Ingestaphase im Pansen bestimmt. Alle Kälber wurden im Anschluss an die CT-Untersuchung euthanasiert. Vier davon wurden während 14 Tagen bei -18 °C in sternaler Position tiefgefroren. Danach wurden 2 Kälber transversal in 1.0 bis 1.5 cm dicke Scheiben gesägt. Je ein Kalb wurde in Dorsal- bzw. Sagittalschnitten gesägt. Die Schnitte wurden den CT-Bildern der entsprechenden Lokalisation gegenübergestellt, um die abgebildeten Strukturen zu identifizieren. Haube, Pansen, Psalter und Labmagen konnten computertomographisch exakt dargestellt werden. Die Topographie der CT-Bilder und der anatomischen Schnittpräparate stimmten sehr gut überein.Dans le présent travail, on décrit les constatations tomodensitométriques sur la panse, le bonnet, le feuillet et la caillette de 5 veaux mâles en bonne santé dans les 105 premiers jours de vie et on les compare avec les résultats des examens post-mortem. Les veaux ont été examinés au total 6 fois par tomodensitométrie à intervalle de 3 semaines. L'examen a été réalisé par coupes transversales de la 5ème vertèbre thoracale jusqu'au sacrum. On a également reconstitué les structures dans les plans sagittal et dorsal au moyen de reconstruction multi planaires. Après l'examen subjectif, on a défini diverses structures, comme l'extension de la panse, du feuillet et de la caillette et celle des phases gazeuses, liquides et solides de l'ingestat de la panse. Tous les veaux ont été euthanasiés après les examens tomodensitométriques. Quatre d'entre eux ont été congelés durant 14 jours en position sternale à -18 °C. Deux veaux ont ensuite été sciés transversalement en tranches de 1.0 à 1.5 cm d'épaisseur. Un veau a été scié en tranches dorsales et un en tranches sagittales. Les coupes ont été comparées aux images tomodensitométriques afin d'identifier les structures visualisées. Le bonnet, la panse, le feuillet et la caillette ont pu être visualisés de façon exacte par tomodensitométrie. La topographie des images tomodensitométriques et des coupes anatomiques correspondent très bien.In questo studio sono stati descritti i risultati della tomografia computerizzata (CT) del reticolo, rumine, omaso e abomaso di 5 vitelli sani dalla nascita fino al 105esimo giorno di vita e confrontati con le analisi post mortem. I vitelli sono stati esaminati con CT per 6 volte ad intervalli di 3 settimane. L'esame è stato condotto in sezione trasversale dalla quinta vertebra toracica fino al sacro. Con una ricostruzione multiplanare sono state rappresentate le strutture anche sui piani sagittale e dorsale. In seguito alla valutazione soggettiva sono state definite varie strutture come la dilatazione del rumine, dell'omaso e dell'abomaso e infine la dilatazione della fase ingesta gassosa, liquida e solida del rumine. Tutti i vitelli alla fine delle analisi CT sono stati eutanasiati. Quattro di loro sono stati congelati durante 14 giorni a -18 °C in posizione sternale. Dopodiché, 2 vitelli sono stati segati trasversalmente a strati di spessore da 1.0 a 1.5 cm. Un vitello è stato segato in posizione dorsale e uno in posizione sagittale. Le sezioni sono state confrontate alle immagini CT della posizione corrispondente alfine di individuare le strutture raffigurate. Reticolo, rumine, omaso e abomaso sono stati raffigurati esattamente con la CT. La topografia delle immagini CT e gli esami istologici coincidevano molto bene.

In the present study, three primiparous lactating Holstein cows (260–285 d in lactation) were used in a 3 × 3 Latin square design to assess the effects of three doses (0·0, 0·4 and 0·8 μg/kg body weight) of lipopolysaccharide (LPS, Escherichia coli 0111:B4) on changes in ruminal microbiota and ruminal fermentation. Ruminal pH was linearly decreased (PPPP>0·10) the gene expression of Na+/K+-ATPase and monocarboxylic acid transporter-1, -2 and -4. A plot of principal coordinate analysis based on unweighted UniFrac values and analysis of molecular variance revealed that the structure of ruminal bacterial communities in the control was distinct from that of the ruminal microbiota in the cattle exposed to LPS. At the phylum level, when compared with the control group, LPS infusion in the tested cows linearly increased (PP

The goal of this study was to examine the development of the reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum in six calves from birth to 100 days of age by means of six serial ultrasonographic examinations. The examinations were carried out in standing animals using a 5 MHz-transducer as described previously. The calves were primarily fed milk until examination 4 and then they were weaned. The reticulum was assessed for its shape and contractility, the rumen for its size and content, the omasum for its size, content and motility and the abomasum for its size and content before and after the ingestion of milk. The reticulum was seen in all calves starting at examination 2 and had biphasic and triphasic contractions; the latter were associated with eructation. The rumen was always imaged in all calves as early as Day 1 and its visible size increased progressively in all intercostal spaces (ICSs) during the study period. The omasum was best imaged in the 8th or 9th ICS; it was seen medial to the liver dorsally and usually medial to small intestines ventrally. Its visible size in these two ICSs increased progressively but omasal motility was not apparent. In newborn calves the abomasum was the largest compartment and dominated the abdominal cavity. It was visible from the 5th ICS to the flank. Except for examination 2, the mean visible abomasal length was significantly larger after feeding than before. Lateral abomasal extension to the left was greater than to the right at examinations 1-4, but was much smaller than to the right at examinations 5 and 6 because of progressive expansion of the rumen. Abomasal extension into the right hemiabdomen changed little during the study period.

Objective To investigate the epidemiological features and its potential related risk factors of adult rumination syndrome (ARS) in Chinese naval servicemen, and to provide clinical basis for diagnosis and treatment of ARS. Methods A randomized cluster sampling method was used. Investigation and diagnosis were made according to the Rome Ⅲ Modular Questionnaire from November 2006 to April 2007, and 8600 cases were collected from naval forces. Results 7454 valid questionnaires were retrieved. The overall incidence of ARS was 2.32% (176/7574, male>female). The median age, age of conscription and length of military service were 23, 18 and 4 years respectively. The ARS was most common in unmarried people, who were 21-25 years old holding a high school diploma, with a 1-4 years military service. The incidence of ARS was different between groups with different gender, age, years of military service and marital status (P＜0.05). No significant difference in the incidence between those with different education levels or blood types. The differences between individuals in ARS group and healthy controls were related to habit of overeating (P=0.0000), picky eating (P=0.0001), addiction to spicy food (P=0.0000), eating hard dry food (P=0.0001), and eating fruits (P=0.0188). Conclusion The overall incidence of ARS in naval force is 2.32%, and it is prevalent in young man. The body weight is an independent risk factor for ARS.

The aim of this study was to determine the time course for adaptation of the reticulo-rumen, omasum, abomasum, and small intestine in response to an abrupt increase in the proportion of grain in the diet. Adaptive responses include tissue and digesta mass, small intestinal length, and brush border enzyme activity in the duodenum, proximal jejunum, and ileum. Twenty-five Holstein steers (213 ± 23 kg; 5 to 7 mo of age) were blocked by body weight, and within block were randomly assigned to 1 of 5 treatments: the control diet (CTRL; 92% chopped grass hay and 8% mineral and vitamin supplement on a dry matter basis) or a moderate grain diet (MGD; 50% chopped grass hay, 42% rolled barley grain, and 8% mineral and vitamin supplement) that was fed for 3 (MGD3), 7 (MGD7), 14 (MGD14), or 21 d (MGD21). Dry matter intake was limited to 2.25% of body weight to ensure that changes in dry matter intake did not confound the results. On the last day of the dietary exposure, steers were slaughtered 2 h after feeding. Reticulo-rumen tissue mass and ruminal epithelium mass in the ventral sac of the rumen were not affected by the MGD. Wet reticulo-ruminal digesta mass decreased from CTRL to MGD7 and then increased, but reticulo-ruminal digesta dry matter mass did not differ between treatments. Omasal mass, omasal tissue mass, and omasum digesta mass decreased linearly with the number of days fed MGD, but abomasal tissue mass tended to increase linearly. Duodenal tissue mass tended to increase linearly, and ileal length increased linearly with the number of days fed MGD. Lactase activity in the proximal jejunum increased linearly and maltase activity in duodenum tended to increase linearly with days fed MGD. Aminopeptidase N activity in the proximal jejunum increased cubically with days fed MGD, and dipeptidylpeptidase IV activity in ileum tended to decrease from CTRL to MGD14 and then tended to increase. Adaptation to a diet with a greater proportion of concentrate involves changes in the mass and length of regions of the gastrointestinal tract and brush border enzyme activity. These changes take place gradually over at least 3 wk.

This study aimed to evaluate the behavior of sheep fed babassu cake as a substitution for elephant grass silage. The experiment was conducted at the Federal Rural University of Amazonia (Universidade Federal Rural da Amazônia - UFRA), Brazil, using 45 sheep housed in individual stalls, with unlimited access to feed and distributed in a completely randomized design with five treatments (0, 12.5, 25, 37.5 and 50% inclusion of babassu cake) and nine replications. All of the treatments contained a roughage-to-concentrate ratio of 40:60. No differences were observed in the time spent feeding (P 0.05), regardless of the source of roughage used. However, there was a reduction in the time spent in rumination (P 0.05) and an increase in time spent idling (P 0.05) when babassu cake was included in the diet. Although there was a reduction in the time spent chewing the ruminal bolus (P 0.05), the total daily chewing time was the same for all animals (P 0.05). However, the sheep fed babassu cake showed higher feeding and rumination efficiency (P 0.05). Therefore, the substitution of elephant grass silage with babassu cake can be performed at up to 50% without compromising the total time spent eating and chewing, which allows increased feeding and rumination efficiency.

The analysis of the patterns of behavior of polydisperse radioactive silicate particles in the components of the food chain of cattle is presented. It is shown that the composition of the size distribution of radioactive particles taken into animal organisms differs from the original composition of the particles deposited on the surface of pasture vegetation, and from dispersion of the particles in the aboveground biomass of vegetation at the time of grazing. The intake of particles into animal organisms is reduced with the increase of their size, and for the particle fraction of 400-800 microns it is about 10 times less than for the fine fraction (100 microns). The mathematical compartment model ofthe transport of polydisperse radioactive particles in the digestive tract of cattle has been developed. It is found that the elimination rate of radioactive particles from the animal organism depends on their sizes. Deposition of particles on the fundic surface of the wall ventral sac of rumen and reticulum as well as their long stay in comparison with the chyme in abomasum was noted. The maximum levels of irradiation are formed in these parts of the digestive tract of cattle.

This article describes the ultrasonographic findings of the reticulum, rumen, omasum, abomasum, and liver of calves from birth to 100 days of age. Reticular motility is used to exemplify how the forestomach function in calves progresses and gradually approaches that of adult cattle. The ultrasonographic examination of the esophageal groove reflex and the investigation of factors affecting esophageal groove closure are described. The ultrasonographic findings of the forestomachs and abomasum of calves with ruminal drinker syndrome are discussed. The article concludes with the description of the ultrasonographic examination of the liver.

The journal of biological chemistry 291(46), 24200 - 24214(2016). doi:10.1074/jbc.M116.747527, Metagenomics has opened up a vast pool of genes for putative, yet uncharacterized, enzymes. It widens our knowledge on the enzyme diversity world and discloses new families for which a clear classification is still needed, as is exemplified by glycoside hydrolase family-3 (GH3) proteins. Herein, we describe a GH3 enzyme (GlyA1) from resident microbial communities in strained ruminal fluid. The enzyme is a β-glucosidase/β-xylosidase that also shows β-galactosidase, β-fucosidase, α-arabinofuranosidase, and α-arabinopyranosidase activities. Short cello- and xylo-oligosaccharides, sophorose and gentibiose, are among the preferred substrates, with the large polysaccharide lichenan also being hydrolyzed by GlyA1. The determination of the crystal structure of the enzyme in combination with deletion and site-directed mutagenesis allowed identification of its unusual domain composition and the active site architecture. Complexes of GlyA1 with glucose, galactose, and xylose allowed picturing the catalytic pocket and illustrated the molecular basis of the substrate specificity. A hydrophobic platform defined by residues Trp-711 and Trp-106, located in a highly mobile loop, appears able to allocate differently β-linked bioses. GlyA1 includes an additional C-terminal domain previously unobserved in GH3 members, but crystallization of the full-length enzyme was unsuccessful. Therefore, small angle x-ray experiments have been performed to investigate the molecular flexibility and overall putative shape. This study provided evidence that GlyA1 defines a new subfamily of GH3 proteins with a novel permuted domain topology. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that this topology is associated with microbes inhabiting the digestive tracts of ruminants and other animals, feeding on chemically diverse plant polymeric materials., Published by Soc., Bethesda, Md.

The reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum were assessed via ultrasonography in 10 healthy female calves before, during and 2 h after feeding hay and grass silage. The evaluations were made using an ultrasound machine with a 5.0 MHz linear transducer. The reticulum could be visualized before feeding in all the calves. Its appearance and pattern of contractions were similar to those in adult cattle, although the amplitude (5.2±1.06 cm) and velocity (3.5±1.42 cm/s) of the first contraction were markedly less than in adult cattle. The position and size of the entire rumen including the dorsal and ventral sacs and the ruminal contents were assessed. Except for its smaller size, the ultrasonographic appearance of the omasum of calves was similar to that of adult cattle. The abomasum was seen to the left and right of the ventral midline before feeding in all calves; it occupied considerably more space on the left than the right. Compared with its appearance before feeding, the ultrasonographic appearance of the rumen, omasum and abomasum did not change during or after feeding. Ultrasonography is an ideal imaging tool for evaluating the reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum before, during and after feeding in calves.

The purpose of this study was to describe the ultrasonographic picture of the gastrointestinal tract in healthy camels (Camelus dromedarius). For this purpose, 22 camels were examined. The rumen and its glandular sacs were filling most of the left side of the abdomen. The rumen wall was smooth and echogenic. The ventral part of the reticulum could be best imaged in 17 (77%) camels from the left and right paramedian region just behind to the sternal pad. The reticulum in these animals had a thick wall (1.17±0.27 cm) that appeared as a half-moon-shaped structure with a biphasic contraction. The omasum was best viewed through the right 8th to 6th intercostal spaces in 18 (82%) camels. In the remaining 4 (18%), it was visualized through four consecutive intercostal spaces (right 9th to 6th). It had a wall thickness of 1.1±0.7 cm and a transverse diameter of 8.74±3.4 cm. The abomasum could be best visualized from the right 9th and 8th intercostal spaces in 14 (64%) camels, while it was observed in the 9th intercostal space in 3 (14%) animals and in the 8th and 7th intercostal space in 5 (22%) camels. Small intestinal structures were best seen low in the right paralumbar fossa. It was thin-walled (0.43±0.14 cm) and had a diameter of 2.62±0.47 cm. The cecum was imaged chiefly in the caudal right flank. It was thin-walled (0.37±0.05 cm), had a diameter of 13.8±1.6 cm. The proximal loop of the large colon appeared as thick, echogenic, continuous and slightly curved lines. It was thin-walled (0.51±0.08 cm) and had a diameter of 3.5±0.8 cm. The spiral colon was confined in all camels to the caudal ventral half of the abdomen. It appeared as structures with thick echoic lateral walls with a number of echogenic arched lines next to each other. Free peritoneal fluid pockets were imaged in two locations in 19 (86%) camels. Ultrasound-guided abdominocentesis was successful in 15 (68%) of the examined camels. This study provides the ultrasonographic appearance of the normal gastrointestinal tract in healthy camels that could be used as a reference for the interpretation of suspected digestive abnormalities.

The reticulum, rumen, omasum, and abomasum were assessed via ultrasonography before, during, and 15, 30, and 120 minutes after feeding milk to 10 healthy calves. The ultrasonographic examinations were conducted using a 5.0 MHz linear transducer. Loops were recorded on video for further evaluation. The reticulum could be visualised before feeding in seven calves. Its appearance and pattern of contractions were similar to those in adult cattle, although the amplitude (1.7 ± 0.75 cm) and velocity (2.7 ± 1.34 cm/s) of the first contraction were smaller than in adult cattle. The reticulum could not be visualised in any of the calves during feeding as it was displaced cranially and laterally and therefore being obscured by the lungs as the abomasum expanded with the ingested milk. 2 hours post ingestion it remained obscured in 5 individual and was visualized again the other 5. The position and size of the entire rumen including the dorsal and ventral sacs and the ruminal contents were assessed. There were no changes in the ultrasonographic appearance of the rumen during or after feeding. Except for its smaller size, the ultrasonographic appearance of the omasum of calves was similar to that of adult cattle. Milk flow through the omasum could not be seen in any of the calves, and there were no changes in the appearance of the omasum during and after feeding. The abomasum was seen to the left and right of the ventral midline before feeding in all calves; it occupied considerably more space on the left than the right. The flow of milk into the abomasum and milk clotting, which occurred 15 minutes after feeding, could be seen in all calves. The milk clots started to slowly disintegrate 30 minutes after the start of feeding, and by 2 hours post feeding, this process was greatly advanced but remained incomplete. Ultrasonography is an ideal tool for the evaluation of the reticulum, rumen, omasum, and abomasum before, during, and after the ingestion of milk in calves.

This study was designed to determine the effects of gastrin on the circulating levels of ghrelin, growth hormone (GH), insulin, glucagon and glucose in ruminants. Two experiments were done in eight Holstein steers. Animals were randomly assigned to receive intravenous bolus injections: (1) 0.1% bovine serum albumin in saline as vehicle, 0.8, 4.0 and 20.0 μg/kg body weight (BW) of bovine sulfated gastrin-34; (2) vehicle, 0.53 μg/kg BW of bovine sulfated gastrin-17 alone or combined with 20.0 μg/kg BW of [D-Lys(3)]-GHRP-6, the selective antagonist of GHS-R1a. Blood samples were collected from -10 to 150 min relative to injection time. Concentrations of acyl and total ghrelin in response to gastrin-34 injection were significantly increased in a dose-dependent manner. Concentrations of GH were also markedly elevated by gastrin-34 injection; however, the effect of 20.0 μg/kg was weaker than that of 4.0 μg/kg. The three doses of gastrin-34 equally decreased insulin levels within 15 min and maintained the level until the time of last sampling. Gastrin-34 had no effect (P > 0.05) on the levels of glucagon and glucose. Levels of acyl ghrelin increased after administration of gastrin-17 alone or combined with [D-Lys(3)]-GHRP-6; however, [D-Lys(3)]-GHRP-6 did not block the elevation of GH by gastrin-17. The present results indicate that sulfated gastrin stimulates both ghrelin and GH release, but the GHS-R1a may not contribute to the release of GH by gastrin. Moreover, sulfated gastrin seems to indirectly maintain the homeostasis of blood glucose through the down-regulation of insulin in ruminants.

Glucagon-like peptide 2 (GLP-2), secreted by enteroendocrine cells, has several physiological effects on the intestine of monogastric species, including promotion of growth of intestinal epithelium, reduction of epithelial cell apoptosis, and enhancement of intestinal blood flow, nutrient absorption, and epithelial barrier function. The regulatory functions of GLP-2 in the ruminant gastrointestinal tract (GIT) have not been well studied. The objectives of this investigation were to characterize the mRNA expression of 4 members of the GLP-2 pathway throughout the bovine GIT, including (1) proglucagon (GCG), the parent peptide from which GLP-2 is derived through cleavage by prohormone convertase; (2) prohormone convertase (PCSK1); (3) GLP-2 receptor (GLP2R); and (4) dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP4), the enzyme that inactivates GLP-2. Gene expression was evaluated in rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasum, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, and rectum collected at slaughter from prepubertal heifers, mature cows in early, mid, and late lactation, and nonlactating cows (n = 3 per stage) by a gene expression profiling assay. In addition, mRNA expression of 14 genes involved in nutrient transport, enzyme activity, blood flow, apoptosis, and proliferation were evaluated in the 9 GIT tissues for their association with GCG and GLP2R mRNA expression. Immunohistochemistry was used to localize GLP2R protein in tissues of the lower GIT. Results indicated that mRNA expression of GCG, PCSK1, GLP2R, and DPP4 varies across the 9 GIT tissues, with greatest expression in small and large intestines, and generally nondetectable levels in forestomachs. Expression of DPP4 and GLP2R mRNA varied by developmental stage or lactational state in intestinal tissues. Expression of GCG or GLP2R mRNA was correlated with molecular markers of proliferation, apoptosis, blood flow, enzyme activity, and urea transport, depending on the tissue examined, which suggests a potential for involvement of GLP-2 in these physiological processes in the ruminant GIT. The GLP2R protein was expressed in intestinal crypts of the bovine GIT, which is consistent with the distribution in monogastric species. Our findings support a functional role of the GLP-2 pathway in bovine GIT and the potential for use of GLP-2 as a therapy to improve intestinal function and nutrient absorption in ruminants.

Summary From in vitro experiments it is concluded that there is no evidence for the existence of specific dopaminergic receptors in the ruminal smooth muscle. The responses produced by dopamine in isolated ruminal smooth muscle preparation of the goat appear to involve primarily a direct mechanism of action because inhibition of dopamine-β-hydroxylase failed to modify the action of this amine. Further, only large doses of cocaine caused reduction — a small one — in the response to dopamine. This mechanism of action is related to α-adrenergic receptors because dibenamine and phentolamine were very effective antagonists in contrast to propranolol. Dopamine was about 50 to 100 times less potent than adrenaline, while adrenaline appeared to be about 1.5 times as active as noradrenaline. It is concluded that the α-adrenergic receptors mediating the biphasic or motor responses to dopamine, noradrenaline and adrenaline are located on smooth muscle cells rather than on a nervous pathway. In the conscious goat dopamine, noradrenaline and adrenaline caused inhibition of the extrinsic reticulo-ruminal contractions. The mean doses of noradrenaline and dopamine which were equally active to 1 μg per kg. per min. of adrenaline were approximately 2 μg and 10 μg per kg. per min., respectively. The cardiovascular effects produced by dopamine were different from those produced by adrenaline or noradrenaline. Zusammenfassung Die Wirkung von Dopamin auf die adrenergischen Magenrezeptoren der Ziege In vitro-Versuche sprechen fur das Fehlen von spezifischen dopaminergischen Rezeptoren in der glatten Pansenmuskulatur. Die Reaktionen von isolierten Praparaten von glatter Pansenmuskulatur der Ziege durften auf einem direkten Wirkungsmechanismus beruhen, da eine Hemmung der Dopamin-β-Hydroxylase den Effekt dieses Amins nicht veranderte. Nur grose Kokaindosen vermogen den Dopamineffekt ein wenig zu vermindern. Dieser Wirkungsmechanismus steht mit α-adrenergischen Rezeptoren in Beziehung, denn Dibenamin und Phentolamin waren im Gegensatz zu Propranolol sehr starke Antagonisten. Dopamin war etwa 50 bis 100 mal weniger wirksam als Adrenalin, wahrend Adrenalin ungefahr 1,5 mal aktiver war als Noradrenalin. Die α-adrenergischen Rezeptoren, welche den biphasischen oder motorischen Effekt auf Dopamin, Noradrenalin und Adrenalin vermitteln, durften sich eher an den glatten Muskelzellen denn an den Nerven befinden. An der wachen Ziege hemmten Dopamin, Noradrenalin und Adrenalin die Hauben-Pausenmotorik. Die mittleren Noradrenalin- und Dopamindosen, welche einen gleich starken Effekt wie 1 μg Adrenalin pro kg Korpergewicht und pro Minute auslosten, betrugen 2 μg bzw. 10μg pro kg und Minute. Die kardiovaskularen Effekte von Dopamin unterschieden sich von denjenigen des Adrenalins und Noradrenalins. Resume Action de la dopamine sur les recepteurs adrenergiques stomacaux chez la chevre Des recherches in vitro ont montre l'absence de recepteurs dopaminergiques specifiques dans la musculature lisse de la panse. Les reactions de preparations isolees de musculature lisse de la panse chez la chevre doivent reposer sur un mecanisme d'action direct, car une inhibition de la dopamine-β-hydrolase n'a pas change l'effet de cette amine. Seules de grandes quantites de cocaine ont un peu diminue l'effet de la dopamine. Ces mecanismes d'action doivent etre en relation avec les recepteurs α-adrenergiques car la dibenamine et la phentolamine etaient fortement antagonistes contrairement au propanolol. La dopamine fut environ 50 a 100 fois moins active que l'adrenaline alors que cette derniere fut a peu pres 1,5 fois plus active que la noradrenaline. Les recepteurs α-adrenergiques qui manifestent l'effet biphasique et moteur par l'action de la dopamine, de la noradrenaline et de l'adrenaline, devraient plus se situer au niveau des cellules de la musculature lisse que des nerfs. La dopamine, la noradrenaline et l'adrenaline ont inhibe la motricite de la panse et du bonnet chez la chevre eveillee. Pour produire un effet aussi fort que 1 μg d'adrenaline par kg de poids et par minute, la dose moyenne de noradrenaline et de dopamine a ete de 2 μg, respectivement de 10 μg, par kg et par minute. Les effets cardiovasculaires de la dopamine etaient differents de ceux de l'adrenaline et de la noradrenaline. Resumen El efecto de la dopamina sobre los receptores gastrico-adrenergicos en la cabra De los experimentos realizados in vitro, se infiere que no hay evidencia de la existencia de receptores dopaminergicos especificos en el musculo liso de la panza. Las respuestas de preparaciones aisladas de musculo liso de la panza de cabra deberian basar en un mecanismo directo de accion, ya que la inhibicion de la dopamina-β-hidroxilasa no alteraba la accion de esta amina. Dosis elevadas de cocaina nada mas daban lugar a disminuir un poco el efecto dopaminico. Este mecanismo de accion esta relacionado con los receptores α-adrenergicos, ya que la dibenamina y la fentolamina eran unos antagonistas muy efectivos, en contraste con el propanolol. La dopamina era unas 50 a 100 veces menos potente que la adrenalina, mientras que esta era 1,5 veces mas activa que la noradrenalina. Los receptores α-adrenergicos, que transmiten las respuestas bifasicas o motoras a la dopamina, noradrenalina y adrenalina, deberian estar localizados mas bien en las celulas del musculo liso que en los nervios senderos. En la cabra consciente inhibian la dopamina, noradrenalina y adrenalina las contracciones extrinsecas reticulo-ruminales. Las dosis medias de noradrenalina y dopamina, que desencadenaban el mismo efecto intenso que 1 μg de adrenalina por kg peso en pie y minuto, eran del orden de 2 μg resp. 10 μg por kg y minuto. Los efectos cardiovasculares producidos por la dopamina se diferenciaban de aquellos ocasionados por la adrenalina o noradrenalina.

Entre os métodos de controle da verminose gastrintestinal em ovinos, a utilização de produtos químicos é o mais empregado. Porém, o uso indiscriminado e continuado desses produtos tem selecionado populações de helmintos resistentes aos anti-helmínticos, fenômeno relatado no mundo todo. Este trabalho teve como objetivo identificar as espécies de parasitos gastrintestinais e diagnosticar a situação da resistência anti-helmíntica em ovinos no Estado de Mato Grosso do Sul. Foram realizados testes de redução na contagem de ovos por grama de fezes (OPG) em rebanhos de dezesseis propriedades rurais; as sete formulações utilizadas continham as seguintes bases farmacológicas: Albendazol, Ivermectina, Levamisole, Triclorfon, Moxidectina, Closantel e uma contendo as três primeiras associadas. As espécies identificadas nas necropsias, em ovinos adultos, foram: Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Cooperia curticei, C. punctata, C. pectinata e Oesophagostomum columbianum; em ordem de prevalência. As formulações contendo Albendazol e Ivermectina não apresentaram eficácia na redução de OPG nos rebanhos testados, com médias de redução de 0,7 e -19,6%, respectivamente. Closantel apresentou eficácia média de 6,7%; Levamisole, Moxidectina e Triclorfon de 28,7, 26,8 e 65%, respectivamente; a associação das três bases (Albendazol, Ivermectina e Levamisole), uma média de eficácia de 55,8%. As percentagens médias de larvas infectantes recuperadas nas coproculturas, tanto no pré como no pós-tratamento, foram semelhantes; indicando que a resistência às bases testadas está presente em todas as espécies citadas, em maior ou menor intensidade. Os dois gêneros predominantemente resistentes são Haemonchus sp., com 86,9%; seguido por Trichostrongylus sp., com média de 47,5%; Strongyloides sp. 33,6%; Oesophagostomum, sp. 21,4% e Cooperia sp. 19,7%. ABSTRACT - Among the methods of control of gastrointestinal worms in sheep, the use of chemicals is the most common. However, the continued, and indiscriminate, use of these products has selected populations of resistant helminths to anthelmintics, a phenomenon reported in the whole world. This study aimed to identify the species of gastrointestinal parasites and diagnose the status of anthelmintic resistance in sheep in the State of Mato Grosso do Sul Brazil. Feacal egg count reduction tests (FECRT) were performed in flocks of sixteen farms, and the seven formulations used contained the following pharmacological bases: Albendazole, Ivermectin, Levamizol, Trichlorfon, Moxidectin, Closantel and one containing the first three in association. The species identified at necropsy, in adult sheep, were: Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Cooperia curticei, C. punctata, C. pectinata and Oesophagostomum columbianum, in order of prevalence. The formulations containing Albendazole and Ivermectin did not show efficacy in reducing the EPG in the flocks tested, with average reductions of 0.7 and -19.6%, respectively. Closantel presented an average efficacy of 6.7%; Levamisolee, Moxidectin and Trichlorfon, 28.7, 26.8 and 65% respectively, the combination of three bases (Albendazole, Ivermectin and Levamizol), an average efficacy of 55.8 %. The average percentages of infective larvae recovered in the faecal cultures, pre and post treatment were similar, indicating that resistance to the bases tested is present in all species cited, to a greater or lesser degree. The two genera predominantly resistant are Haemonchus sp., with 86.9%, followed by Trichostrongylus sp., with an average of 47.5%, Strongyloides sp. 33.6%, Oesophagostomum sp. 21.4% and Cooperia sp. 19.7%.

Summary The arrangement of the ruminant stomach in four gastric compartments with specialized mucosal papillae along the gastric groove (GG) has been previously described. However, a debate remains about functional implications of these morphological pecularities. This study was aimed to elucidate the relation between the papillar morphology and its putative functions. The GG was obtained from adult bovine stomachs ( n =10) and subdivided into (1) proximal, (2) middle, (3) distal portion of the reticular groove (RG) and (4) the area of the reticulo-omasal sphincter (ROS). The specimens were processed for scanning electron microscopy and stereomicroscopy to analyze the density, shape and location of the papillae. Whereas the proximal portion of the RG was characterized by small (1.5 mm), conically shaped, smooth papillae, the middle portion exhibited larger papillae (4 mm) with sharp borders covered by keratin. Towards the ROS the papillae further increased in size (3–11 mm) and showed compound or single processes resembling the shape of arrows, twisted hooks or thorns (unguiculliform papillae). At the ROS the unguiculliform papillae were distributed in clusters groups and along the border of the sphincter. Due to their peculiar morphological features it is suggested that unguiculliform papillae functions as a filter barrier preventing the passage of large-sized food particles into the omasum and avoiding subsequent obstruction of both the RG and the ROS. The data give further evidence that unguiculliform papillae are actively involved in the complex mechanisms of food processing taking place within the ruminant pluricavity stomach.

Ghrelin and growth hormone (GH) play a key role in regulating energy balance, metabolic hormone secretion and food intake. Ghrelin and GH responses to dietary compositions have not yet been fully clarified, although there may be significant relationships between dietary compositions and ghrelin and GH responses. In the present study, therefore, we assessed whether dietary compositions influence postprandial plasma ghrelin and GH levels in wethers. Four wethers were respectively fed concentrate (C) or timothy hay (R) for 14 days. The levels of total digestive nutrients (TDN) and crude protein (CP) were adjusted to be at the same level. The basal ghrelin in both groups was rapidly and significantly decreased after feeding. Although the decline of ghrelin levels in C was greater and shorter than that in R, no significant difference was observed in the area under the curve (AUC) or in the incremental area. The plasma GH levels were also rapidly and significantly decreased after feeding in both groups and a significant difference was observed between the two groups for AUC of GH. Interestingly, the circadian changes in the plasma ghrelin levels were close to those in the GH levels in C, but this was not the case in R. These data suggest that dietary compositions influence postprandial plasma ghrelin and GH levels, and that these differences may be caused by several factors, including nutrients and ruminal fermentation.

Selected vessel types and conditions used for in vitro fermentation were compared to evaluate their effects on determinations of neutral detergent fiber (NDF) digestibility (NDFD) in 2 replicate 48-h fermentations. Treatments included 50-mL polyethylene centrifuge tubes with gas-release valves (treatment 1); 50-mL polyethylene centrifuge tubes with continuous gassing with CO2 (treatment 2); 50-mL polyethylene centrifuge tubes sealed, oriented horizontally, and shaken continuously parallel to the long axis of the tube, with manual gas release (treatment 3); 125-mL Erlenmeyer flasks with continuous gassing with CO2 (treatment 4); and 125-mL serum vials sealed with stoppers and crimp seals with (treatment 5) or without (treatment 6) manual gas release. Goering and Van Soest medium and blended ruminal inoculum from 4 lactating cows were used. Substrates were alfalfa hay, corn silage, ryegrass hay, and soyhulls. Gas was released and measured in treatments 3 and 6 at 3.0, 5.5, 9.0, 11.5, 23.5, 29.5, and 47.5 h by using a syringe with a hypodermic needle. Vessels from each treatment were harvested at 0, 6, 12, 24, 30, and 48 h for NDF analysis, with NDFD calculated as 1 - [(residual NDF, g - residual NDF in fermentation blank, g)/sample NDF, g]. Medium pH did not decline below 6.3 for any treatment. Average values for NDFD for 24 through 48 h were 0.576, 0.639, 0.688, 0.668, 0.679, and 0.681 for treatments 1 through 6, respectively (standard error of the difference = 0.008). The lowest NDFD was noted for treatment 1, which differed from all other treatments; treatments 3, 4, 5, and 6 did not differ by treatment or by the interaction of treatment and substrate. Treatments 1 and 2 gave lower NDFD values than the other treatments, but these differences were not consistent and differed by substrate, with alfalfa showing the fewest differences among treatments and soyhulls the most. Net energy of lactation values for substrates, as predicted from differences in 48-h NDFD, were 7 to 15% lower for treatment 1 than for the average of all other treatments. Slopes of the gas production per gram of substrate dry matter curves differed between treatments 3 and 5. In conclusion, measured NDFD was altered by fermentation treatment, with polyethylene tubes + gas-release valves giving the lowest values. Consequently, NDFD values may not be comparable across fermentation methods, but the effect will vary among feedstuffs. The combination of methods used for sealing, gassing, or agitating vessels may have a greater impact on NDFD than does vessel type.

An isocratic ion-pair high-performance liquid chromatography (IP-RP-HPLC) method with UV detection was developed to identify and quantify ellagic acid (EA). This phenolic compound is widely distributed in the plants and is often present in the diet of ruminants. The method was validated and validation parameters were: linearity range 5-100 mg/L; correlation coefficient, 0.9995; mean recoveries (99.94 and 101.07%) and detection limit 1.4 mg/L. Method was applied for the determination of ellagic acid in oak leaves and in ruminal fluid from to a vitro ruminal system. The proposed method proved to be rapid and accurate and can be successfully used in ruminant nutrition studies.

The rumen microbial ecosystem is a complex system where rumen fermentation processes involve interactions among microorganisms. There are important relationships between diet and the ruminal bacterial composition. Thus, we investigated the ruminal fermentation characteristics and compared ruminal bacterial communities using tag amplicon pyrosequencing analysis in Yanbian yellow steers, which were fed linseed oil (LO) and propionate precursors. We used eight ruminally cannulated Yanbian yellow steers (510 ± 5.8 kg) in a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design with four dietary treatments. Steers were fed a basal diet that comprised 80% concentrate and 20% rice straw (DM basis, CON). The CON diet was supplemented with LO at 4%. The LO diet was also supplemented with 2% dl-malate or 2% fumarate as ruminal precursors of propionate. Dietary supplementation with LO and propionate precursors increased ruminal pH, total volatile fatty acid concentrations, and the molar proportion of propionate. The most abundant bacterial operational taxonomic units in the rumen were related to dietary treatments. Bacteroidetes dominated the ruminal bacterial community and the genus Prevotella was highly represented when steers were fed LO plus propionate precursors. However, with the CON and LO diet plus malate or fumarate, Firmicutes was the most abundant phylum and the genus Ruminococcus was predominant. In summary, supplementing the diets of ruminants with a moderate level of LO plus propionate precursors modified the ruminal fermentation pattern. The most positive responses to LO and propionate precursors supplementation were in the phyla Bacteriodetes and Firmicutes, and in the genus Ruminococcus and Prevotella. Thus, diets containing LO plus malate or fumarate have significant effects on the composition of the rumen microbial community.

Behavioral observations and small fecal particles compared to other primates indicate that free-ranging proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) have a strategy of facultative merycism(rumination). In functional ruminants (ruminant and camelids), rumination is facilitated by a particle sorting mechanism in the forestomach that selectively retains larger particles and subjects them to repeated mastication. Using a set of a solute and three particle markers of different sizes (b2, 5 and 8mm),we displayed digesta passage kinetics and measured mean retention times (MRTs) in four captive proboscis monkeys (6–18 kg) and compared the marker excretion patterns to those in domestic cattle. In addition, we evaluated various methods of calculating and displaying passage characteristics. The mean ± SD dry matter intake was 98 ± 22 g kg−0.75 d−1, 68 ± 7% of which was browse. Accounting for sampling intervals in MRT calculation yielded results that were not affected by the sampling frequency. Displaying marker excretion patterns using fecal marker concentrations (rather than amounts) facilitated comparisons with reactor theory outputs and indicated that both proboscis and cattle digestive tracts represent a series of very few tank reactors. However, the separation of the solute and particle marker and the different-sized particle markers, evident in cattle, did not occur in proboscis monkeys, in which all markers moved together, at MRTs of approximately 40 h. The results indicate that the digestive physiology of proboscis monkeys does not show typical characteristics of ruminants, which may explain why merycism is only a facultative strategy in this species.

This research was conducted in order to investigate rumen degradability of some factors includes; Dray Matter (DM), Organic Matter (OM), Crude Protein (CP), Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) in three different plant protein supplements includes; soybean, canola and cottonseed meal. The experiment was carried out using in three castrated and fistulated male Zel sheep. Each feedstuff was weighed into duplicate nylon bags and incubated in each of the three rumen fistulated sheep for 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, 24 and 48 h. Results revealed that effective degradability of DM of soybean, canola and cottonseed meal were 55.8, 73.8 and 48.5%, respectively. Effective degradabilities of the CP in feedstuffs were 55.8, 62 and 48.3% for the respective feedstuffs. Effective degradabilities of the OM were 55.7, 56.4 and 47.4%, respectively. Results also showed that effective degradabilities of the ADF were 55, 56.4 and 37.6, respectively. According to the results the researchers concluded that canola and soybean were more degradable in the rumen of the sheep while cottonseed meal were less degradable and, hence resulted in higher rumen undegradable protein.

Thirty-two male Holstein calves were used to investigate the effects of nutritional conditions around weaning and aging on carbonic anhydrase (CA) activity in the parotid gland and epithelium from the rumen and abomasum. We fed calf starter and lucerne hay as well as milk replacer (group N) or fed milk replacer either with (group S) or without (group M) administration of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) through polypropylene tubing into the forestomach until 13 weeks of age. The diets were fed at 1000 hours and 1600 hours, and SCFA were administrated after milk replacer feeding at 1600 hours. Slaughter and tissue sampling were carried out between 1300 hours and 1430 hours at 1, 3, 7, 13, and 18 weeks of age. Tissue samples from five adult (1.5-2.0 years-old) Holstein steers were obtained from a local abattoir. In group N, CA activity in the parotid gland gradually and significantly increased toward the adult value, whilst in the epithelium from the rumen and abomasum, adult values were reached at 3 and 7 weeks of age, respectively. At 13 weeks, the activity for group N was significantly higher than that for the other two groups in the parotid gland, but there was no significant difference in the epithelium from the rumen and abomasum. The concentration of the carbonic isozyme VI in the parotid gland also changed with age but, in contrast to CA activity, had not reached adult levels by 13 weeks of age. In groups M and S, parotid saliva did not show any change toward an alkaline pH or toward a reciprocal change in the concentrations between Cl(-) and HCO(3)(-), even at 13 weeks of age. From these results we conclude that a concentrate-hay based diet around weaning has a crucial role in CA development in the parotid gland, but not in the epithelium of the rumen and abomasum.

The comparative in vitro sulphoreduction of the (+) and (-) enantiomers of albendazole sulphoxide (ABZSO) and oxfendazole (OFZ) by ruminal fluid obtained from sheep and cattle, was investigated, under anaerobic conditions, in this study. Ruminal fluid samples were obtained from Holstein steers fitted with a permanent rumen fistula and from Corriedale lambs via an oesophageal tube. Albendazole sulphoxide, incubated as either the racemic (rac) mixture or as each individual enantiomeric form, was extensively sulphoreduced to form albendazole (ABZ) by ruminal fluid from both species. The concentrations of ABZ formed at different incubation times were between 55 and 158% greater after the incubation of cattle ruminal fluid with (+) ABZSO, compared with that produced when (-) ABZSO was the incubated substrate. Similarly, the concentrations of ABZ were 1.3--3.0-fold higher when (+) ABZSO was incubated with sheep ruminal fluid. Significantly higher rates of depletion were observed for the (+) enantiomeric form when ABZSO was incubated with ruminal fluid from both species. The rates of ABZ formation from both ABZSO enantiomeric forms were significantly higher in sheep compared with cattle ruminal fluid. Fenbendazole (FBZ) was the metabolite formed after the incubation of the racemic form of OFZ with ruminal fluid obtained from both species. The metabolic profile of both OFZ enantiomers followed a similar pattern to that observed for ABZSO enantiomers. A bi-directional chiral inversion of one enantiomer into its antipode was observed. The (+) enantiomer appeared in the incubation medium when (-) ABZSO was the incubated substrate, and also the (-) antipode was detected after (+) ABZSO incubation with ruminal fluid obtained from both species. The results reported here demonstrate an enantioselective ruminal sulphoreduction of ABZSO and OFZ (substrate enantioselectivity). These findings contribute to interpret the chiral behaviour of benzimidazole-sulphoxide anthelmintics.

Evaluation of the radio‐transmission pH‐measurement system for monitoring the ruminal pH and subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) in cattle is described. This is done in order to reveal the possible application of this system for detection and pathophysiological research of SARA by continuous ruminal pH measurement. The possibility of using this system for assessment of the ruminal pH in SARA cattle, and the presence of negative correlation between the ruminal pH and ruminal temperature in heathy and SARA cattle were determined. In addition, the 16S rRNA gene pyrosequencing analysis showed that the ruminal microbial community was simpler in SARA cattle, and the bacterial numbers in SARA cattle were lower than those in healthy hay‐fed cattle. Concentrate feeding might have reduced the diversity of the ruminal microbial community. Changes in the ruminal microbial community of SARA cattle might be related to the changes in ruminal pH followed by the decrease in the number of some bacteria. Continuous monitoring of the ruminal pH using the radio‐transmission pH‐measurement system would be applied for detection and prevention of SARA in the field and pathophysiological research of SARA, including ruminal zymology and bacteriology, which have been determined previously by sampling of the ruminal fluid and measuring of ruminal pH.

Secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG), the most abundant lignan in flaxseed, is metabolized by the ruminal microbiota into enterolignans, which are strong antioxidants. Enterolactone (EL), the main mammalian enterolignan produced in the rumen, is transferred into physiological fluids, with potentially human health benefits with respect to menopausal symptoms, hormone-dependent cancers, cardiovascular diseases, osteoporosis and diabetes. However, no information exists to our knowledge on bacterial taxa that play a role in converting plant lignans into EL in ruminants. In order to investigate this, eight rumen cannulated cows were used in a double 4 × 4 Latin square design and fed with four treatments: control with no flax meal (FM), or 5%, 10% and 15% FM (on a dry matter basis). Concentration of EL in the rumen increased linearly with increasing FM inclusion. Total rumen bacterial 16S rRNA concentration obtained using Q-PCR did not differ among treatments. PCR-T-RFLP based dendrograms revealed no global clustering based on diet indicating between animal variation. PCR-DGGE showed a clustering by diet effect within four cows that had similar basal ruminal microbiota. DNA extracted from bands present following feeding 15% FM and absent with no FM supplementation were sequenced and it showed that many genera, in particular Prevotella spp., contributed to the metabolism of lignans. A subsequent in vitro study using selected pure cultures of ruminal bacteria incubated with SDG indicated that 11 ruminal bacteria were able to convert SDG into secoisolariciresinol (SECO), with Prevotella spp. being the main converters. These data suggest that Prevotella spp. is one genus playing an important role in the conversion of plant lignans to human health beneficial antioxidants in the rumen.

Sheep were 'compartmentalized' by surgically implanting cannulae in the rumen, abomasum and terminal ileum with a re-entrant cannula inserted between the cystic duct and the duodenum to monitor bile secretion. Doramectin, containing a trace of [3H]-doramectin, was administered both intravenously (i.v.) and intraruminally (i.r.) at a dosage of 150 microg/kg. The pharmacokinetic behaviour of [3H]-labelled products was determined in these pools, and also in peripheral plasma, urine and faeces. Parent doramectin was also determined in plasma, abomasal digesta fluid and bile. Following i.r. administration, [3H] compounds were almost entirely associated with particulate digesta. A 14.5 h half-life in the rumen prolonged the presence of [3H] in the abomasum. Doramectin appeared to be degraded in abomasal digesta because only 24% of abomasal [3H] was attributed to the parent drug. Absorption of doramectin resulted in a systemic availability of 35%, of which 1.6 and 23.6% of the dose was contained in urine and biliary secretions, respectively. Following i.v. administration, almost negligible quantities of [3H] were secreted into the rumen or abomasum and only 2.7% of the dose was excreted in urine, whereas 132% was secreted in bile. This indicated that approximately one-third of biliary metabolites were enterohepatically recycled with biliary metabolites, elevating the proportion of [3H] in fluid digesta in the small intestine. Passage of the i.r.-administered drug through the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) resulted in virtually complete faecal excretion of [3H] within 5 days, whereas the continued secretion of i.v.-administered [3H] in bile prolonged the presence of [3H] in the GIT, with faecal clearance not being complete for at least 10 days. This multi-compartmental study has provided more information on the behaviour of doramectin than can be obtained from examining drug disposition in the peripheral circulation alone. With this knowledge, it is anticipated that opportunities for improving drug performance will be identified.

The presence and distribution of nicotinamide dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase (NADPH-d)-containing neurons have been studied by means of NADPH-d histochemistry in different regions of the adult cow gut, from the esophagus to the rectum. NADPH-d and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) were constantly recognized to be colocalized in the same neuron. The colocalization of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) and galanin in such nitrergic neurons was also studied by means of combined histochemical and immunofluorescence techniques. NADPH-d-positive neurons were present along the myenteric plexus of the entire gut, and in the submucous plexus from the abomasum to the rectum. Notably, they formed two types of nerve networks in the submucous connective tissue of the jejunum-ileum. NADPH-d-positive innervation of the muscle layers occurred throughout the tract, and sometimes a clear correspondence was noted between the number of reactive fibres and the thickness of the muscle. Nitrergic fibres also occurred in the mucosa and often were in relation to glands and blood vessels. The nitrergic neurons varied in size, shape, and intensity of staining, and often their terminals were seen to surround unstained perikarya. Various types of neurons were recognized on the basis of their chemical content; one of them contained galanin, VIP and NOS simultaneously. The present results suggest that the nitrergic neurons of the bovine gastrointestinal tract play roles presumably for controlling the motility of the gut and the conduction of interneuronal impulses.

To compare digestion in the forestomach of llamas and sheep, the animals were fed four different diets: hay alone (H), low in nitrogen; the same hay with soybean meal (HS), with barley (HB) and with both soybean meal and barley (HSB). The sheep intakes were restricted to obtain about the same intake level in the two species. On average, the digestibilities of DM, OM and NDF were significantly higher in llamas: respectively, +2.7, 3.6 and 5.3 for the four diets. Added barley impaired hay digestion in the sheep, but very little in the llamas. The llamas retained nitrogen better than the sheep owing to very low urine losses. For hay alone, the retention time of digesta in the forestomach was higher in the llamas than in the sheep. In contrast, there was no difference between species for the other diets. The pH and ammonia levels were higher in llamas. In contrast, the SCFA levels were lower. In all cases the in-situ rate of digestion was greater in llamas. The low intake of llamas generally observed in the literature does not account for their better digestion. The stability of the two first compartment pH levels and an excellent cellulolytic activity are determining factors in the better digestion efficiency of plant cell walls in the llamas. However, higher NH3 levels were observed in llamas, although the urinary N excretion was lower.

An experiment was carried out to examine the effect of increasing the proportion of Wimmera ryegrass hay in a lucerne hay-based diet on net transfer of nutrients to the intestine, and on the disappearance ofn-alkanes in the reticulo-rumen and the hindgut of sheep. Following a latin square design, four adult ewes were fed 1:0, 0·33:0·67, 0·67:0·33 and 0:1 proportions of legume and grass. Increasing the proportion of ryegrass in the diet linearly decreased the intake of DM (P= 0·017), organic matter (P= 0·021) and N (P= 0·001). However, neutral-detergent fibre intake was not affected (P= 0·148), nor was its digestibility coefficient (P>0·10). Diet had no effect on duodenal flows of nutrients (P>0·10), although the proportion of N intake (NI) recovered at the duodenum as non-NH3N (NAN) increased linearly withLolium rigidumin the diet (P= 0·002). Full recovery of NI as NAN was achieved at NH3concentrations in the rumen below 110 g/l. Microbial N contribution to NAN varied in a quadratic manner (PP>0·10). Duodenal recovery of consumedn-alkanes was not affected by diet and was complete for those present in higher concentrations in the forages. Isolated rumen bacteria contained significant amounts ofn-alkanes, contributing to the duodenal flow of these hydrocarbons in variable proportions depending on the diet consumed.

Background: The study investigated the ultrasonographic appearance of the reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum of calves with ruminal drinking syndrome. Methods: In ten milk-fed calves with ruminal drinking syndrome the reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum were examined by ultrasonography using a 5-MHz linear transducer before, during and after the ingestion of milk. Results: The reticulum could be imaged in eight of ten calves before feeding. The reticular wall appeared as an echoic line, similar to mature cattle, and reticular folds were seen in eight calves. The reticular content appeared as echoic heterogeneous fluid. Reticular contractions were biphasic with 1.0 ± 0.38 contractions per minute. The rumen had a mean wall thickness of 2.1 mm dorsally, 3.5 mm at the level of the longitudinal groove, and 3.2 mm ventrally. The ventral sac of the rumen of all calves contained echoic heterogeneous liquid. During feeding the milk entering the rumen could be seen as hyperechoic liquid in five calves. The omasum was seen on the right side as a crescent-shaped line medial to the liver in seven calves. Only the omasal wall closest to the transducer was seen as an echoic line with a mean thickness of 2.7 mm. The ultrasonographic appearance of the omasum did not change during or after feeding. The abomasum was seen immediately caudal to the xyphoid on both sides of the midline before feeding. The mean length at the ventral midline was 22.2 cm. The ingesta were heterogeneous in all calves and the abomasal folds were distinct in eight. The mean lateral expansion of the abomasum from the ventral midline to the left and right varied from 8.7 to 13.8 cm and from 4.3 to 11.3 cm. The milk entering the abomasum was observed in all calves, and signs of milk clotting were seen in all calves 15 minutes after feeding. Conclusion: This study showed that ultrasonography is useful for detecting milk in the reticulum and rumen of calves with ruminal drinking syndrome.

This review article summarizes the ultrasonographic findings of the reticulum, rumen, omasum, abomasum and intestines of goats. Ultrasonographic examination is done on both sides with the goat in a standing position using a linear array or convex transducer with a frequency of 5.0 to 7.5 MHz. The shape, contour and motility of the reticulum are assessed; this organ appears as a crescent-shaped structure with a smooth contour immediately adjacent to the diaphragm. There are 0.8 to 2.1 reticular contractions per minute, which may be mono-, bi- and triphasic. The rumen is examined from the 8th to 12th intercostal spaces (ICSs) and flank on the left, and from the 12th ICS and flank on the right. The ruminal wall appears as a thick echoic line. The dorsal and ventral sacs of the rumen are differentiated based on the longitudinal groove, which forms an echoic notch. Differentiation of the dorsal gas cap, fibre mat and fluid layer is not always straightforward and varies among goats. The omasum is examined from the 6th to 11th ICSs on the right. Only the wall closest to the transducer can be imaged and it appears as a crescent-shaped echoic line medial to the liver. The omasal folds and the wall furthest from the transducer cannot be seen. In about two thirds of goats, active omasal motility is apparent as a transient reduction in size of several centimetres, followed by relaxation and return to its original size. There is an average of 1.1 contractions per minute. The abomasum is examined from the ventral midline and the left and right paramedian regions and can always be seen from the ventral midline. In all but a few goats the abomasum is also visible from the left and right paramedian areas. It appears as a heterogeneous, moderately echoic structure with echogenic stippling. The abomasal folds appear as prominent echoic bands in about two thirds of all goats. The small and large intestines are examined on the right from the 8th to the 12th ICSs. Loops of jejunum and ileum are seen mainly in cross-section and have a strong motility. The intestinal content is usually homogeneous and echoic and the diameter of the intestinal loops varies from 0.8 and 2.7 cm. The spiral colon and in many cases also the caecum can be imaged. The former is recognized by its garland-like appearance brought about by the centripetal and centrifugal coils of the intestine. In the spiral colon and the caecum, only the wall closest to the transducer can be imaged because of intraluminal gas. The wall appears as a thick echoic and slightly undulating line 5.6 to 8.0 cm in length. Ultrasonography is an imaging technique that is very well suited for the examination of the gastrointestinal tract of goats.

As part of a study on leukocytes in the ruminant forestomach the occurrence and distribution of T cells and major histocompatibility complex Class II positive (MHC-II +) cells in the forestomach mucosa of sheep were investigated. Samples were taken from the reticulum, atrium ruminis, ventral rumen, dorsal rumen and omasum of five healthy adult ewes and seven nearly fullborne foetuses. Frozen sections were stained with an indirect immunoperoxidase method using monoclonal antibodies against sheep MHC-II, CD4 and CD8 molecules and the sheep γδ T cell receptor. Both MHC-II + cells and T cells were distributed along the basal lamina of the epithelium, with either mainly intraepithelial (CD8 + and γδ + cells) or mainly subepithelial (MHC-II + and CD4 + cells) location. The MHC-II + cells showed dendritic morphology and were interpreted as Langerhans cells. In adult ewes CD4 + T cells comprised the major T cell subset at all sample sites. The number of T cells declined from the atrium ruminis through the ventral rumen to the dorsal rumen, while the number of Langerhans cells showed no marked variation between different sample sites. In foetuses, Langerhans cells showed a relatively high prevalence, while T cells were sparse and showed a more random distribution in the rumen wall. No marked variation between sample sites were observed in the fetal forestomachs. It is concluded that Langerhans cells and T cells are normally present in the forestomach mucosa of sheep, and it is suggested that the Langerhans cells represent a constituent component, while the prevalence and distribution of T cells may be influenced by antigen leakage through the epithelium.