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We examined the effect of multiple school-related, resilience-promotive factors against exposure to violence (ETV) at school among an urban sample of 6th-grade students (n = 441, 57% female, mean age = 11.81), 90% identify as students of color. Using multilevel mixed-effects linear models, we analyzed two waves of data (baseline and 4-month follow-up). ETV is associated with subsequent higher levels of victimization, cyberbullying victimization and aggressive behavior after controlling for demographics and outcome scores at baseline. A cumulative school promotive factor (CSPF) consisting of school change efficacy, school connectedness, and perceived trust at school has a compensatory effect (direct, opposite main effect) against the effects of ETV on aggressive behaviors and victimization. Finally, the CSPF has a protective (moderating) effect on aggressive behavior, victimization, and cyberbullying victimization.

We examined the effectiveness of the "Say Something Anonymous Reporting System" (SS-ARS) program in improving school safety in a cluster randomized control trial among over 700 students in 19 middle schools in the Miami-Dade County Public Schools. The SS-ARS is a program that emphasizes youth engagement and trains youth to recognize warning signs of possible harmful behaviors and to safely report potential threats. We compared 3-month posttest reports of students' self-efficacy and intention to report warning signs and 9-month posttest perceptions of school and exposure to school violence in treatment versus control schools. Results show that SS-ARS improved both 3-month and 9-month self-efficacy and intention to report. The intervention also promotes perceptions of school safety and reduced violence exposure at 9-month posttest.

ABSTRACT BACKGROUND METHODS RESULTS CONCLUSIONS Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are associated with behavioral health challenges and high school dropout, and behavioral health is associated with high school dropout. Less is known about the role of behavioral health challenges in the relationship between ACEs and high school dropout.Using data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (2013) and its 2014 Childhood Retrospective Circumstances Study supplement, the current study conducts mediational path analysis to examine the direct and indirect effects of cumulative ACEs on high school dropout via adolescent depression, anxiety, and substance use.Experiencing more ACEs was associated with depression, anxiety, and substance use. Only depression and substance use were associated with high school dropout. There was a significant direct effect between increased ACEs and high school dropout and significant indirect effects via depression and substance use, but not anxiety.Adolescent behavioral health interventions to address the long‐term effects of ACEs may also support academic achievement. School‐based interventions, particularly those aligned with trauma‐sensitive school frameworks and engaging various school personnel, including school nurses, should be considered. Community‐ and policy‐level interventions aimed at primary prevention of ACEs are also needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Bullying behavior is a concern among school-aged youth and anti-bullying programs have been implemented in schools throughout North America. Most anti-bullying programs are delivered to adolescent youth because antisocial-aggressive behaviors are typically associated with this developmental stage. This paper is a review of empirically evaluated school-based bullying prevention and intervention programs in North American elementary schools. Methods: We conducted a systematic, critical review of bullying prevention programming. Data were analyzed to determine the study method, intervention components, measurement of bullying, aggression, or peer victimization, outcomes measured, and results. Results: Our review resulted in the identification of 10 interventions aimed at youth in grades K-6 enrolled in North American elementary schools. Effective intervention strategies targeted a variety of bullying behaviors using diverse mechanisms and included a school--and community-wide approach. Direct outcomes of the reviewed evaluations were centered on bullying, aggression, and victimization. Indirect outcomes of review evaluations included strategies for bystanders, school achievement, perceived school safety, and knowledge or attitudes about bullying. Conclusions: Recommendations for promising practices in effective bullying intervention programming are offered. The review concludes with suggestions for supporting school health staff and in-service teachers drawn from the body of research, and offers direction for future study.

Although allostatic load (AL) is a key concept to reflect physiologic wear and tear from stress, older adults are underrepresented in AL-related research, especially the oldest old (≥80). Further, attenuative factors are often unaccounted for. This longitudinal analysis using data from National Health and Aging Trends Study investigated relationships of AL in 2017 and multi-wave (1) comorbidity accumulation using multilevel Poisson modeling and (2) mortality risk using survival analysis. By year five (2022), each incremental AL increase that older adults (n = 3614) experienced was associated with a 47% increase in comorbidity (p <.001), and a 33% increased mortality risk (p <.001). This research supports a shift to a more proactive, health promotion/risk mitigation paradigm through informing intervention research targeting AL, which is currently scarce. Identifying potentially modifiable and key driving factors influencing the relationship between AL and health among older adults is an important next step to inform intervention design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Few researchers have explored future educational aspirations as a promotive factor against exposure to community violence in relation to adolescents violent behavior over time. The present study examined the direct and indirect effect of exposure to community violence prior to 9th grade on attitudes about violence and violent behavior in 12th grade, and violent behavior at age 22 via 9th grade future educational aspirations in a sample of urban African American youth (n = 681; 49% male). Multi-group SEM was used to test the moderating effect of gender. Exposure to violence was associated with lower future educational aspirations. For boys, attitudes about violence directly predicted violent behavior at age 22. For boys, future educational aspirations indirectly predicted less violent behavior at age 22. Implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Few researchers have explored future educational aspirations as a promotive factor against exposure to community violence in relation to adolescents' violent behavior over time. The present study examined the direct and indirect effect of exposure to community violence prior to 9th grade on attitudes about violence and violent behavior in 12th grade, and violent behavior at age 22 via 9th grade future educational aspirations in a sample of urban African American youth (n = 681; 49% male). Multi-group SEM was used to test the moderating effect of gender. Exposure to violence was associated with lower future educational aspirations. For boys, attitudes about violence directly predicted violent behavior at age 22. For boys, future educational aspirations indirectly predicted less violent behavior at age 22. Implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Perceptions of alcohol and other drug (AOD) use are associated with adolescent substance use behavior, yet research on the role of contextual factors and positive assets in this relationship is scant. This study examined the relationship between school environment and peer influence and past 30-day alcohol and marijuana use via positive future orientation and AOD perceptions in a high school sample (n = 392; 49% male; 73% White). A positive peer influence and a positive school environment were associated with lower alcohol and marijuana use via future orientation, reasoned action approach (RAA) constructs (i.e., injunctive norms, AOD expectancies, and perceived control over AOD use), and intentions to avoid AOD use. The findings provide support for the role of a positive future orientation in the prevention of AOD use among youth and point to differential paths of influence for contextual factors.

Purpose in life (PIL) promotes positive development and is associated with decreased substance use. However, to our knowledge, researchers have not investigated how different categories of PIL are associated with substance use behavior among youth. Therefore, we sought to explore categories of PIL and how they are related to substance use in a sample of adolescents. Ninth through 12th-grade students from a high school in a Midwest suburban community completed a paper-and-pencil survey (n = 408,M[subscript age] = 15.36, SD = 1.21; 50% female; 72% White). Measures included lifetime substance use and categories of PIL. Exploratory factor analyses suggest that there are three categories of PIL. Alcohol and other drug (ATOD) use was inversely related with "broad other-promoting" PIL, while a "broad self-promoting" PIL was positively associated with ATOD use. These findings suggest that exploring PIL with students may reduce substance use behavior.

We report on an effectiveness evaluation of the Youth Empowerment Solutions (YES) program. YES applies empowerment theory to an after-school program for middle school students. YES is an active learning curriculum designed to help youth gain confidence in themselves, think critically about their community, and work with adults to create positive community change. We employed a modified randomized control group design to test the hypothesis that the curriculum would enhance youth empowerment, increase positive developmental outcomes, and decrease problem behaviors. Our sample included 367 youth from 13 urban and suburban middle schools. Controlling for demographic characteristics and pretest outcome measures, we found that youth who received more components of the curriculum reported more psychological empowerment and prosocial outcomes and less antisocial outcomes than youth who received fewer of the intervention components. The results support both empowerment theory and program effectiveness.

Cyberbullying is a type of bullying that involves the use of technology to harm other students. Most researchers have examined individual-level characteristics, but the perception of school climate and school characteristics such as type, size, and level of vulnerabilities have not been considered using multilevel methods. Using a sample of 8,237 Chilean seventh graders from 1,322 schools we examined individual- and school-level predictors of cyberbullying perpetration. Cyberbullying perpetration was predicted by prior victimization, interpersonal relationships, and gender. We found an interaction effect between interpersonal relationships and teacher support for victims. Our findings support the notion that school policies and culture can play a vital role in the prevention of cyberbullying, supporting a protective resilience model.

Family conflict is a salient risk factor for African American adolescents mental health problems. No study we are aware of has estimated trajectories of their family conflict and whether groups differ in internalizing and externalizing problems during the transition to young adulthood, a critical antecedent in adult mental health and psychopathology. As hypothesized, latent class growth analysis approximated 4 developmental trajectories of family conflict during high school for 681 African American adolescents (49% boys). Trajectory classes differed in anxiety, depressive symptoms, and violent behavior at age 20, supporting expectations that adolescents demonstrating elevated levels and atypical trajectories of family conflict in high school would report greater mental health problems as young adults. Family conflict jeopardizes African American adolescents transition to young adulthood by contributing to mental health problems.

Family conflict is a salient risk factor for African American adolescents' mental health problems. No study we are aware of has estimated trajectories of their family conflict and whether groups differ in internalizing and externalizing problems during the transition to young adulthood, a critical antecedent in adult mental health and psychopathology. As hypothesized, latent class growth analysis approximated 4 developmental trajectories of family conflict during high school for 681 African American adolescents (49% boys). Trajectory classes differed in anxiety, depressive symptoms, and violent behavior at age 20, supporting expectations that adolescents demonstrating elevated levels and atypical trajectories of family conflict in high school would report greater mental health problems as young adults. Family conflict jeopardizes African American adolescents' transition to young adulthood by contributing to mental health problems.

Previous research suggests that students participating in school-based musical ensembles are more engaged in school and more likely to connect to their peers in school; however, researchers have not specifically investigated peer connectedness among adolescents in school-based music ensembles. The purpose of this study was to explore middle school band students' perceptions of peer connectedness. Participants (N = 317) indicated moderately high levels of peer connectedness both within the concert band and school. Levels of peer connectedness differed between schools; however, no statistical difference was found by grade/band level or SES. Suggestions for future research and implications for youth development and music education professions are discussed.

The middle school and early high school years are a time of significant development, including an increasing ability to envision oneself in the future. Little is known about how adolescents' future-oriented self-concept (i.e., possible selves) differs across grade levels, although this knowledge may aid in establishing rapport with students and building effective health promotion and risk reduction interventions. Therefore, this study explored grade-level differences in hoped for and feared possible selves in a sample of sixth- to ninth-grade students (n = 2,498; M[subscript age] = 12.72, SD = 1.15; 51.3% female). Findings suggest that adolescents list a variety of possible selves, and the content differs according to grade level. These findings offer helpful insight for intervention work aimed at improving student outcomes and preventing risk behavior. Understanding what adolescents hope and fear for themselves in the future may be particularly beneficial for school nurses in identifying the unique challenges students experience and tailoring health promotion efforts.

Depression is a serious mental health concern among adolescents. Violence exposure is a potent risk factor for depression. Social support may help reduce depression risk, even when adolescents are exposed to violence. Using a compensatory model of resilience, we investigate the influence of violence exposure and social support on depression over time in a sample of urban youth during the high school years (N = 824, 52% female, mean age Year 1 = 14.9). We used growth curve modeling to examine depressive symptoms across adolescence and its association with violence exposure and social support, accounting for important sociodemographic characteristics (sex, socioeconomic status, and race/ethnicity). Depressive symptoms on average increase from Year 1 to 2 of high school and then are stable or decline from Years 2 to 4. Violence observation and conflict in the family were each associated with increased depressive symptoms during the high school years. Mother support was associated with decreased depressive symptoms over time. Our results support a compensatory model of resilience. Promoting positive parent-child communication among urban youth living in disadvantaged contexts may help reduce the probability that exposure to violence will result in depressive symptoms.

This study explored how neighborhood characteristics may relate to African American adolescents' internalizing symptoms via adolescents' social support and perceptions of neighborhood cohesion. Participants included 571 urban, African American adolescents (52% female; "M" age = 17.8). A multilevel path analysis testing both direct and indirect effects of neighborhood characteristics on adolescents' mental health outcomes was conducted. Higher neighborhood poverty and unemployment rates predicted greater internalizing symptoms via lower cumulative social support and perceptions of neighborhood cohesion. In contrast, higher concentrations of African American and residentially stable residents in one's neighborhood related to fewer internalizing symptoms among adolescent residents via greater cumulative social support and perceptions of neighborhood cohesion. Implications of these findings are discussed. (Contains 2 figures and 2 tables.)

This study examined the effects of cumulative risk and promotive factors on violent behavior across the high school years of adolescence in a sample of predominately African American urban adolescents (N = 750). Cumulative risk and promotive factor indices represented individual characteristics, and peer, parental, and familial influences. Using growth curve modeling, we describe trajectories of cumulative risk and promotive factors and test the associations between the time-varying cumulative risk and promotive factor indices and violent behavior. Higher risk was associated with higher levels of violent behavior. Higher levels of promotive factors were associated with less violent behavior and moderated the association between risk and violent behaviors. The results support the risk-protective model of resiliency. Implications for prevention are discussed. (Contains 1 figure and 3 tables.)

Youth living in impoverished urban neighborhoods are at risk for becoming hopeless about their future and engaging in violent behaviors. The current study seeks to examine the longitudinal relationship between social connections, hopelessness trajectories, and subsequent violent behavior across adolescence. Our sample included 723 (49% female) African American youth living in impoverished urban neighborhoods who participated in the Mobile Youth Survey from 1998 through 2006. Using general growth mixture modeling, we found two hopelessness trajectory classes for both boys and girls during middle adolescence: a consistently "low hopelessness class" and an "increasingly hopeless class" with quadratic change. In all classes, youth who reported stronger early adolescent connections to their mothers were less hopeless at age 13. The probability of later adolescent violence with a weapon was higher for boys and was associated with the "increasingly hopeless class" for both boys and girls. Implications for new avenues of research and design of hope-based prevention interventions will be discussed.

The Institute of Medicine recommends school-based body mass index (BMI) screening as an obesity prevention strategy. While school nurses have provided height/weight screening for years, little has been published describing measurement reliability or process. This study evaluated the reliability of height/weight measures collected by school nurses and the privacy of the measurement process. Interrater reliability for height/weight measures was computed on 70 elementary students, comparing measurements collected by a trained researcher to those collected by 7 school nurses. Students arrived in small groups to private measurement spaces. Height agreement was 80% for younger and 85% for older students. Agreement for weight was 97% and 100%, respectively. Reliability for weight was very good. Reliability for height was good, but results suggest careful attention to the collection process is required. Nurses may benefit from regular training on measurement procedures. The results of this study suggest that school nurses provide BMI screening that is private and reliable. (Contains 1 table.)