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This paper summarizes the results from a special session dedicated to understanding the fluid dynamics of the 8:1 thermally driven cavity which was held at the First MIT Conference on Computational Fluid and Solid Dynamics in June, 2001. The primary objectives for the special session were to: (1) determine the most accurate estimate of the critical Rayleigh number above which the flow is unsteady, (2) identify the correct, i.e. best time-dependent benchmark solution for the 8:1 differentially heated cavity at particular values of the Rayleigh and Prandtl numbers, and (3) identify those methods that can reliably provide these results

We present results using FIDAP on 3 meshes with 3 different elements (Q 1 Q 0 , Q 2 P -1 , Q 2 Q -1 ) employed on each. Whereas the bulk of the results were obtained via the 'classical' Galerkin finite element method (GFEM) and the trapezoidal (TR) time integrator, we also tested several alternative options: flux-conservative formulation, energy-conservative formulation, streamline upwinding, mass lumping, backward Euler time stepping, and one additional element (Q 2 Q 1 ). The most accurate of these options was the Q 2 Q -1 element in the advective formulation, no upwinding, trapezoidal time integration, and consistent mass; i.e. straight GFEM

Carbon-oxygen bonds ortho to a phosphoryl group in triarylphosphine oxides undergo cleavage when the oxides are either fused with potassium hydroxide or treated with potassium tert-butoxide in refluxing toluene, presumably through a nucleophilic addition-elimination mechanism. Thus, bis(2-hydroxyphenyl)phenylphosphine oxide is produced along with the expected 2-phenoxyphenyl(phenyl)phosphinic acid from 10-phenyl-10H-phenoxaphosphine 10-oxide. The latter starting material is also produced, together with bis(2-hydroxyphenyl)phenylphosphine oxide, when bis(2-methoxyphenyl)phenylphosphine oxide is fused with potassium hydroxide. Fusion of bis(2-methoxyphenyl)phenylphosphine oxide with sodium hydroxide, however, yields 2-hydroxyphenyl(phenyl)phosphinic acid. Ab initio quantum chemical studies confirm that the downfield 31P chemical shift that is observed in 2-phosphinylphenols is due to hydrogen bonding to the phosphoryl group.

Thermally induced birefringence can degrade the beam quality in high-average-power laser systems with doped-glass substrates. In this work, we compare glass-laser slab amplifiers at either Brewster's angle or normal incidence and discuss trade-offs between both designs. Numerical simulations show the impact of thermally induced depolarization in both amplifier systems. A non-uniform temperature profile and the resultant mechanical stress leads to depolarization that worsens as the beam propagates through the slab-amplifier chain. Reflective losses for depolarized light at Brewster's angle cannot be compensated and degrade beam quality. This motivates the selection of normally incident slab amplifiers, which facilitates birefringence compensation. Tolerances for birefringence compensation of two matched normal-incidence glass-slab amplifiers balanced by a quartz rotator are also investigated. Imbalances in thermal load, relative amplifier position and beam magnification between amplifiers show the highest depolarization sensitivity and establish limits for manufacturing tolerances and amplifier design.

The National Ignition Facility (NIF) at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory is a stadium-sized facility containing a 192-beam, 1.8-Megajoule, 500-Terawatt, ultraviolet laser system. High-energy-density and inertial confinement fusion physics experiments require the ability to precisely align and focus pulses with single beam energy up to 20KJ in a few nanoseconds onto mm-sized targets. NIF's alignment control system now regularly provides automatic alignment of the four commissioned beams prior to every NIF shot in approximately 45min., and speed improvements are being implemented. NIF utilizes adaptive optics for wavefront control, which significantly improves the ability to tightly focus each laser beam onto a target. Multiple sources of both static and dynamic aberration are corrected. This presentation provides an overview of the NIF Automatic Alignment and Wavefront Control Systems including the accuracy and target spot size performance achieved.

The National Ignition Facility at LLNL recently commissioned the first set of four beam lines into the target chamber. This effort, called NIF Early Light, demonstrated the entire laser system architecture from master oscillator through the laser amplifiers and final optics to target and initial X-ray diagnostics. This paper describes the major installation and commissioning steps for one of NIF's 48 beam quads. Using a dedicated single beam line Precision Diagnostic System, performance was explored over the entire power versus energy space up to 6.4 TW/beam for sub-nanosecond pulses and 25 kJ/beam for 23 ns pulses at 1w. NEL also demonstrated frequency converted Nd:Glass laser energies from a single beamline of 11.3 kJ at 2w and 10.4 kJ at 3w.

We discuss how solid-state laser technology can serve in the interests of fusion energy beyond the goals of the National Ignition Facility (NIF), which is now being constructed to ignite a deuterium-tritium target to fusion conditions in the laboratory for the first time. We think that advanced solid-state laser technology can offer the repetition-rate and efficiency needed to drive a fusion power plant, in contrast to the single-shot character of NIF. As discussed below, we propose that a gas-cooled, diode-pumped Yb:S-FAP laser can provide new paradigm for fusion laser technology leading into the next century.

A scaleable diode end-pumping technology for high-average- power slab and rod lasers has been under development for the past several years at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL). This technology has particular application to high average power Yb:YAG lasers that utilize a rod configured gain element. Previously, this rod configured approach has achieved average output powers in a single 5 cm long by 2 mm diameter Yb:YAG rod of 430 W cw and 280 W q-switched. High beam quality (M2 equals 2.4) q-switched operation has also been demonstrated at over 180 W of average output power. More recently, using a dual rod configuration consisting of two, 5 cm long by 2 mm diameter laser rods with birefringence compensation, we have achieved 1080 W of cw output with an M2 value of 13.5 at an optical-to-optical conversion efficiency of 27.5%2. With the same dual rod laser operated in a q-switched mode, we have also demonstrated 532 W of average power with an M2 less than 2.5 at 17% optical-to-optical conversion efficiency. These q-switched results were obtained at a 10 kHz repetition rate and resulted in 77 nsec pulse durations. These improved levels of operational performance have been achieved as a result of technology advancements made in several areas that will be covered in this manuscript. These enhancements to our architecture include: (1) Hollow lens ducts that enable the use of advanced cavity architectures permitting birefringence compensation and the ability to run in large aperture-filling near-diffraction-limited modes. (2) Compound laser rods with flanged-nonabsorbing-endcaps fabricated by diffusion bonding. (3) Techniques for suppressing amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) and parasitics in the polished barrel rods.

We have begun building the ''Mercury'' laser system as the first in a series of new generation diode-pumped solid-state lasers for inertial fusion research. Mercury will integrate three key technologies: diodes, crystals, and gas cooling, within a unique laser architecture that is scalable to kilojoule and megajoule energy levels for fusion energy applications. The primary near-term performance goals include 10% electrical efficiencies at 10 Hz and 1005 with a 2-10 ns pulse length at 1.047 {micro}m wavelength. When completed, Mercury will allow rep-rated target experiments with multiple chambers for high energy density physics research.

We describe a diode-pumped Yb:YAG laser that produces 1080 W of power cw with 27.5% optical optical efficiency and 532 W Q-switched with M(2)=2.2 and 17% optical-optical efficiency. The laser uses two composite Yb:YAG rods separated by a 90 degrees quartz rotator for bifocusing compensation. A microlensed diode array end pumps each rod, using a hollow lens duct for pump delivery. By changing resonator parameters we can adjust the fundamental mode size and the output beam quality. Using a flattened Gaussian intensity profile to calculate the mode-fill efficiency and clipping losses, we compare experimental data with modeled output power versus beam quality.

With approximately 99% of the electrical energy supplied to the National Ignition Facility (NIF) appearing as heat in the amplifiers, thermal recovery of the NIF system is a major consideration in the design process. The NIF shot rate is one shot every 8 hours, with a goal of 4 hours between shots. This necessitates that thermal recovery take place in no more than 7 hours, with a goal of 3 hours for the accelerated shot rate. Residual optical distortions, which restrict the shot rate, are grouped into two discrete categories: (1) distortions associated with residual temperature gradients in the laser slabs, and (2) distortions associated with buoyantly driven convective currents in the amplifier cavity and beam-tube regions. Thermal recovery of the amplifiers is achieved by cooling the flashlamps and blastshields with a turbulent gas flow. The cooled blastshields then serve as a cold boundary to radiatively extract the residual heat deposited in the slabs and edge claddings. Advanced concepts, such as the use of slightly chilled gas to accelerate some aspects of recovery, are addressed. To quantify recovery rates of the amplifiers, experiments and numerical models are used to measure and calculate the temperatures and optical distortions in NIF-like amplifier elements. The calculation results are benchmarked against AMLAB temperature measurements, thus allowing a quantitative prediction of NIF thermal recovery. These results indicate that the NIF requirement of 7 hour thermal recovery can be achieved with chilled temperature cooling gas.

In this paper we describe the concept, and the basic scaling relation ships of solid state heat capacity lasers. Intermediate between single shot and average power systems, the heat capacity concept scales solid state lasers to MW levels of burst power.

We present the energy, propagation, and thermal modeling for a diode-pumped solid-state laser called Mercury being designed and built at LLNL using Yb:S-FAP [i.e., Yb{sup 3+}-doped Sr{sub 5}(PO{sub 4}){sub 3}F crystals] for the gain medium. This laser is intended to produce 100 J pulses at 1 to 10 ns at 10 Hz with an electrical efficiency of {approximately}10%. Our modeling indicates that the laser will be able to meet its performance goals.

High Average Power Diode-Pumped Solid-State LasersCamilleBibeau, Ray Beach, Eric Honea, Chris Marshall, Steve Sutton, Mark Emanuel, Jay Skidmore, and Steve PayneLawrence Livermore National Laboratory,P0 Box 808, L-441, Livermore, CA 94550, USATel: (510) 422-7798, Fax: (510) 423-6195, Email: bibeau1l1nl.govThe combination of our unique capabilities at LLNL in diode development, crystal growth, and system designs haveallowed us to pursue a variety of research areas of interest to the commercial, medical, and defense industries. We havedeveloped a flexible diode pumping technology which utilizes low cost silicon microchannel coolers to enable highaverage power diode operation and a shaped cylindrical microlens technology which allows the radiance conditioningof large two-dimensional laser diode arrays. The flexibility that this diode technology has brought to pump powergeneration in both average power and radiance have broadly expanded the number of ion-host combinations that can beefficiently excited and used in diode pumped solid state lasers.Many potential applications in the area of materials processing motivate the development of efficient, compact cw 1 jtm

A diode-side-pumped discrete-optic Er3+ :YAG laser employs pump-light coupling through a sapphire plate diffusion-bonded to the laser slab, removing heat directly at the pump face of the slab instead of requiring conduction through to its far side. This lowers the temperature in the gain region and gives reduced thermal lensing, which produces exceptional beam quality (M2~ 1.3) at output powers -0.3 Watt. Powers above 1 Watt have been demonstrated with peak slope efficiencies ~20%. The novel architecture is also applicable to other side-pumped lasers.

Using a scalable diode end-pumping technology developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory we have demonstrated a compact Tm:YAG laser capable of generating greater than 50 W of cw 2 micrometer laser output power. The design and operational characteristics of this laser, which was built originally for use in assessing laser surgical techniques, are discussed. The 2 micrometer radiation produced by the 3F4 - 3H6 transition of Tm3+ has many practical applications because it is strongly absorbed by water and also because it is an 'eye-safe' wavelength. The strong absorption of 2 micrometer radiation by water makes this transition a very attractive candidate for performing laser surgical procedures as most tissue types are predominately composed of liquid water. The fact that 2 micrometer radiation is considered 'eye-safe' makes this transition attractive for laser range finding and remote sensing applications where other laser wavelengths could pose a safety hazard. At sufficiently high doping densities, Tm3+ exhibits a beneficial two-for-one quantum pump efficiency enabling well developed AlGaAs laser diode arrays to be used as efficient excitation sources. Many applications requiring 2 micrometer laser radiation such as remote sensing, laser radar, anti sensor, sensor spoofing, and OPO pumping have driven the development of diode pumped all solid state TM3+ laser systems because of their potential for efficiency, compactness, and ruggedness. Here we focus on Tm3+:YAG and the scalable diode end-pumping technology developed at LLNL which enables higher average power operation of diode pumped Tm3+ laser systems than has previously been possible. To date we have demonstrated cw operation of this laser to power levels of 51 W. The end-pumping technology used is the same as was previously used to demonstrate a 100 mJ Q-switched Nd:YLF laser. (Truncated.)

The conceptual characteristics of a solid-state laser architecture that promises to provide appropriate characteristics for high average power (MW scale) solid-state lasers, such as those desired for Inertial Fusion Energy (IFE) applications, was first outlined in the early 1980's by J. Emmett, B. Krupke, and J. Trenholme.¹ This design employed a solid-state gain medium that was optically pumped and extracted as well as gas-cooled through the large aperture of a slab. Experimental work was then pursued several years later, when Albrecht, Sutton and co-workers explored this new strategy for cooling solid-state amplifier-slabs with resistive-electrical surface heaters.² Yb:Sr5(PO4)3F (Yb:S-FAP) was discovered and found to be an efficient energy storage gain media and to possess other properties well-suited to a high efficiency rep-rated operation.³ The emergence of high power diode arrays provided the final ingredient needed to build an efficient gas-cooled-slab (GCS) diode-pumped solid-state laser (DPSSL). Orth and co-workers conceptually assembled these advances to describe the potential performance of a MJ scale GCS DPSSL within the laser-driven fusion-energy context.4 A Yb:S-FAP DPSSL was previously demonstrated that had 12% electrical to optical slope efficiencies without the complications of active cooling.5 We report here the first results for a gas-cooled-slab laser device.

As the technology associated with the development of solid-state drivers for inertial fusion energy (IFE) has evolved, increased emphasis has been placed on the development of an efficient approach for managing the waste heat generated in the laser media. This paper addresses the technical issues associated with the gas cooling of large aperture slabs, where the laser beam propagates through the cooling fluid. It is shown that the major consequence of proper thermal management is the introduction of simple wedge, or beam steering, into the system. Achieving proper thermal management requires careful consideration of the geometry, cooling fluid characteristics, cooling flow characteristics, as well as the thermal/mechanical/optical characteristics of the laser media. Particularly important are the effects of cooling rate variation and turbulent scattering on the system optical performance. Helium is shown to have an overwhelming advantage with respect to turbulent scattering losses. To mitigate cooling rate variations, the authors introduce the concept of flow conditioning. Finally, optical path length variations across the aperture are calculated. A comparison of two laser materials (S-FAP and YAG) shows the benefit of a nearly a-thermal material on optical variations in the system.

The average power performance capability of semiconductor diode laser arrays has improved dramatically over the past several years. These performance improvements, combined with cost reductions pursued by LLNL and others in the fabrication and packaging of diode lasers, have continued to reduce the price per average watt of laser diode radiation. A low cost technique developed and demonstrated at LLNL for optically conditioning the output radiation of diode laser arrays has enabled a new and scalable average power diode-end-pumping architecture that can be simply implemented in diode pumped solid state laser systems (DPSSLs). This development allows the high average power DPSSL designer to look beyond the Nd ion for the first time. Along with high average power DPSSLs which are appropriate for material processing applications, low and intermediate average power DPSSLs are now realizable at low enough costs to be attractive for use in many medical, electronic, and lithographic applications.

High average power Nd:YAG lasers are increasingly interesting for industrial applications such as drilling and machining. Diode pumping of this solid state medium offers longer services intervals, reduced thermal optical distortions, higher system efficiency and more compact packaging than lamp pumping. The zigzag slab geometry is well suited for applications where the average power exceeds a few hundred watts and a good beam quality is desired, particularly if the laser pumping level is to be varied. We present the status of our latest upgrade to our (originally 300 watt 1 ) diode pumped slab laser. In what follows we first describe the diode pump source. We then discuss the zigzag slab laser design and its present performance.

Detailed performance results and fabrication techniques for an efficient and low thermal impedance laser diode array heatsink are presented. High duty factor or even CW operation of fully filled laser diode arrays is enabled at high average power. Low thermal impedance is achieved using a liquid coolant and laminar flow through microchannels. The microchannels are fabricated in silicon using a photolithographic pattern definition procedure followed by anisotropic chemical etching. A modular rack-and-stack architecture is adopted for the heatsink design allowing arbitrarily large two-dimensional arrays to be fabricated and easily maintained. The excellent thermal control of the microchannel cooled heatsinks is ideally suited to pump array requirements for high average power crystalline lasers because of the stringent temperature demands that result from coupling the diode light to several nanometers wide absorption features characteristic of lasing ions in crystals.

The National Ignition Facility (NIF) at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory is a stadium-sized facility containing a 192-beam Nd glass laser. Its 1.053-µm output is frequency converted to produce 1.8-MJ, 500-TW pulses in the ultraviolet. Refer to the companion overview articles in this issue for more information. High-energy-density and inertial confinement fusion physics experiments require the ability to precisely align and focus pulses with single-beam energy up to 20 KJ and durations of a few nanoseconds onto millimeter-sized targets. NIF's alignment control system now regularly provides automatic alignment of the four commissioned beams prior to every NIF shot in approximately 45 min, and speed improvements are being implemented. NIF utilizes adaptive optics for wavefront control, which significantly improves the ability to tightly focus each laser beam onto a target. Multiple sources of both static and dynamic aberration are corrected. This article provides an overview of the NIF automatic alignment and wavefront control systems, and provides data to show that the facility is expected to meet its primary requirements to position beams on the target with an accuracy of 50-µm rms over the 192 beams and to focus the pulses into a 600-µm spot.

Based on simple considerations for the mechanisms limiting average power operation of solid state lasers, we deduce some scaling laws for the gas cooled disk amplifier architecture. We discuss geometrical issues, gain and efficiency considerations, and output power scaling. The paper concludes with an outline for a high repetition rate GSGG system and a very large average power module suitable for a fusion driver.

The potential of the gas cooled disk architecture to operate at kilowatt to megawatt levels of average power is explored. The key issues investigated are flow and heat transfer in the cooling channel, the power required to perform the cooling and its implications for overall system efficiency, flow conditioning in the drift region, losses due to turbulent scattering, and beam quality due to optical distortions. In all cases an understanding of the issues leads to ways to mitigate or eliminate deleterious effects. Our conclusion is that the gas cooled disk geometry is an architecture which can lead to devices which are capable of average power levels reaching from a few kilowatts up to hundreds of kilowatts per beam line without stressing existing engineering or technology.