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Paper has shaped society for centuries and is considered one of humanity's most important inventions. However, pulp and paper products can be damaging to social and natural systems along their lifecycle of material extraction, processing, transportation, and waste handling. The pulp and paper industry is among the top five most energy-intensive industries globally and is the fourth largest industrial energy user. This industry accounts for approximately 6% of global industrial energy use and 2% of direct industrial CO2 emissions. The pulp and paper industry is also the largest user of original or virgin wood, with deleterious impacts on both human health and local flora and fauna, including aquatic ecosystems. This critical and systematic review seeks to identify alternatives for mitigating the climate impacts of pulp and paper processes and products, thus making the pulp and paper industry more environmentally sustainable. This study reviews 466 studies to answer the following questions: what are the main determinants of energy and carbon emissions emerging from the pulp and paper industry? What are the benefits of this industry adopting low-carbon manufacturing processes, and what barriers will need to be tackled to enable such adoption? Using a sociotechnical lens, we answer these questions, identify barriers for the pulp and paper industry's decarbonization, and present promising avenues for future research.

Concrete is the most highly used construction material globally. This is largely due to its durability, versatility and manufacture from inexpensive and readily available materials. Although concrete has become an essential and ubiquitous construction material for modern society, its use has significant environmental impacts. The full cement and concrete lifecycle, from production to final disposal, accounts for nearly 10% of global energy-related CO2 emissions with the majority of these emissions produced from cement, which is the binding material that holds concrete together. The cement and concrete industry (CCI), which is integral to global infrastructure development, is therefore confronted with a growing need to decarbonize its operations and products, as well as to support the decarbonization of associated end-user sectors. This paper provides a systematic and critical review of more than 800 studies to highlight ways in which the CCI can decarbonize. A socio-technical perspective is used to understand the full range of industrial and economic activities where a decarbonized paradigm for cement and concrete production is relevant. This perspective is further used to assess key technical, economic, social and political factors that will drive a net-zero transition in the CCI over the long term.

Natural gas is an important and highly flexible fuel across the industry sector globally. It provides fuel and energy services for both heat and power, and is also as a key feedstock in many industrial processes. Natural gas-based industrial technologies typically have lower capital costs, operating costs, and electricity consumption than coal-based technologies. These features make natural gas preferable for industrial use as compared to other fossil fuels. However, the future of natural gas remains uncertain, especially for industry planning to be net-zero or carbon neutral by mid-century. This review addresses the role that natural gas might play in global industrial decarbonization, and how it can help decarbonize industrial processes. We undertake a comprehensive and critical review of more than 400 studies on the topic of industrial decarbonization via natural gas. The review also provides evidence of critical barriers that range from financial and infrastructural to geopolitical and governance issues along with promising avenues for future research.

The iron and steel industry is the largest coal consumer and the most greenhouse gas intensive industry. It consumes about 7% of global energy supply, and conservative estimates report that it is responsible for 7–9% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Decarbonization of the iron and steel industry is thus vital to meet climate change mitigation targets and achieve a sustainable future for the industry. This paper presents a comprehensive and systematic review that considered more than 1.6 million pieces of literature and analyzes in depth a shortlist of 271 studies on the iron and steel industry's decarbonization. Applying a sociotechnical lens that investigates raw materials, iron and steel making processes, steel products making and usage, and waste and recycling, the review identifies the climate footprint of the iron and steel industry. The review also assesses current and emerging practices for decarbonization, identifying 86 potentially transformative technologies. The benefits of decarbonizing the iron and steel industry are considered through energy and carbon savings, financial savings, and other environmental and public health benefits. Barriers to decarbonization are considered across financial, organizational, and behavioral aspects. The review also discusses various financial tools and policy instruments that can help overcome the barriers. Lastly, research gaps are outlined.

Glass is a material inextricably linked with human civilization. It is also the product of an energy intensive industry. About 75%–85% of the total energy requirements to produce glass occur when the raw materials are heated in a furnace to more than 1500 °C. During this process, large volumes of emissions arise. The container and flat glass industries, which combined account for 80% of total glass production, emit over 60 million tonne of CO2 per year. However, environmental issues relating to the glass industry are not just limited to the manufacturing stage, but also from raw materials extraction, which impacts local ecosystems and creates other environmental challenges associated with tailing ponds, waste disposal and landfills. This systematic review poses five questions to examine these issues and themes: What alternatives exist to abate the climate effects of glass and thus make the full life cycle of glass more sustainable? What are the key determinants of energy and carbon from glass? What technical innovations have been identified to make glass manufacturing low to zero carbon? What benefits will amass from more carbon-friendly process in glass manufacturing, and what barriers will need tackling? To examine these questions, this study presents the findings of a comprehensive and critical systematic review of 701 studies (and a shorter sample of 375 studies examined in depth). A sociotechnical lens is used to assess glass manufacturing and use across multiple sectors (including buildings, automotive manufacturing, construction, electronics, and renewable energy), and options to decarbonize. The study identifies a number of barriers ranging from financial to infrastructural capacity, along with high potential avenues for future research.

Industrial decarbonization is a daunting challenge given the relative lack of low-carbon options available for “hard to decarbonize” industries such as iron and steel, cement, and chemicals. Hydrogen, however, offers one potential solution to this dilemma given that is an abundant and energy dense fuel capable of not just meeting industrial energy requirements, but also providing long-duration energy storage. Despite the abundance and potential of hydrogen, isolating it and utilizing it for industrial decarbonization remains logistically challenging and is, in many cases, expensive. Industrial utilization of hydrogen is currently dominated by oil refining and chemical production with nearly all of the hydrogen used in these applications coming from fossil fuels. The generation of low-carbon or zero-carbon hydrogen for industrial applications requires new modes of hydrogen production that either intrinsically produce no carbon emissions or are combined with carbon capture technologies. This review takes a sociotechnical perspective to examine the full range of industries and industrial processes for which hydrogen can support decarbonization and the technical, economic, social and political factors that will impact hydrogen adoption.

The oil refining industry, which was established in the mid-19th century, has become a foundation of modern society. While the refining of crude oil to produce transportation fuels, petrochemical feedstocks and a variety of other products has brought manifold benefits, it has also led to the global proliferation of greenhouse gas emissions as well as local air pollution from the combustion of fossil fuels. The industry is therefore confronted with a growing need to decarbonize its operations, as well as to support decarbonization of the end use sectors that it directly enables. This paper provides a systematic and critical literature review to uncover the means by which the oil refining industry can decarbonize and evolve as part of an increasingly carbon constrained future. A sociotechnical perspective is used to understand the full range of industrial and economic activities where a decarbonized oil refining industry is expected to remain important and to provide the framework to assess key technical, economic, social and political factors that will likely impact the evolution of the oil refining industry. We highlight key opportunities for this industry to decarbonize while also exposing gaps in the existing literature concerning its decarbonization. The insights provided are expected to support policy makers, researchers and practitioners with the tools needed advance a low-carbon transition of the oil refining industry.

Humanity has come to depend on synthetic, factory made gases that have extremely significant global warming potential. Fluorinated greenhouse gases, or F-gases, such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) have been termed “super pollutants” and “super greenhouse gases” given their severe and powerful impact on the climate. They are the most potent greenhouse gases known to modern science, with global warming potentials far greater than carbon dioxide, some up to almost 24,000 times more so. Troublingly, they are also the fastest growing class of greenhouse gas emissions around the world, especially in developing countries. Research suggest that almost 40% of their emissions by 2050 will fall outside the scope of international agreements such as the Paris Accord, Montreal Protocol and Kigali Amendment. Without comprehensive and sustained interventions, uncontrolled growth in F-gas emissions could offset all of the gains made by the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol, or the cornerstone of existing international climate governance, the Nationally Determined Contributions of the 2015 Paris Accord. This review asks: What options are available to mitigate the environmental impacts of F-gases and thus make their manufacturing or disposal far more sustainable? What technical solutions and innovations exist to make their industrial usage low to zero carbon? What benefits will accrue from F-gas mitigation, and what barriers will need addressed? It undertakes a comprehensive and critical review of more than 140,000 sources of evidence, and a short list of 855 studies on the topic. It utilizes a sociotechnical lens that examines the manufacturing and use of F-gases across multiple sectors (including refrigeration, electronics manufacturing, non-ferrous metals processing, and applications in consumer goods) and components of its lifecycle (including not only manufacturing, but also use, disposal and destruction). We find that there are several policies and regulations that can be employed to address this already serious and growing climate change challenge.

Natural gas development across the member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) — including Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Qatar, Kuwait, Oman and Bahrain —has become a priority for achieving long-term energy security and for supporting economic diversification initiatives (Shabaneh et al. 2020).

Ceramics are considered one of the greatest and earliest most useful successes of humankind. However, ceramics can be highly damaging to natural and social systems during their lifecycle, from material extraction to waste handling. For example, each year in the EU, the manufacture of ceramics (e.g., refractories, wall and floor tiles and bricks and roof tile) emit 19 Mt CO2, while globally, bricks manufacturing is responsible for 2.7% of carbon emissions annually. This critical and systematic review seeks to identify alternatives to mitigate the climate effects of ceramics products and processes to make their lifecycle more sustainable. This article reviews 324 studies to answer the following questions: what are the main determinants of energy and carbon emissions emerging from the ceramics industry? What benefits will this industry amass from adopting more low-carbon processes in manufacturing their products, and what barriers will need to be tackled? We employ a sociotechnical approach to answer these questions, identify barriers to decarbonise the ceramics industry, and present promising avenues for future research. In doing so, we show that environmental and energy challenges associated with the ceramics industry are not just limited to the manufacturing stage but also relate to the extraction of raw materials, waste disposal, and landfilling.

The global Covid-19 pandemic has rapidly overwhelmed our societies, shocked the global economy and overburdened struggling health care systems and other social institutions around the world. While such impacts of Covid-19 are becoming clearer, the implications of the disease for energy and climate policy are more prosaic. This Special Section seeks to offer more clarity on the emerging connections between Covid-19 and energy supply and demand, energy governance, future low-carbon transitions, social justice, and even the practice of research methodology. It features articles that ask, and answer: What are the known and anticipated impacts of Covid-19 on energy demand and climate change? How has the disease shaped institutional responses and varying energy policy frameworks, especially in Africa? How will the disease impact ongoing social practices, innovations and sustainability transitions, including not only renewable energy but also mobility? How might the disease, and social responses to it, exacerbate underlying patterns of energy poverty, energy vulnerability, and energy injustice? Lastly, what challenges and insights does the pandemic offer for the practice of research, and for future research methodology? We find that without careful guidance and consideration, the brave new age wrought by Covid-19 could very well collapse in on itself with bloated stimulus packages that counter sustainability goals, misaligned incentives that exacerbate climate change, the entrenchment of unsustainable practices, and acute and troubling consequences for vulnerable groups.

How does culture influence low-carbon energy transitions? How can insights about cultural influences guide energy planners and policymakers trying to stimulate transitions, particularly at a time of rapid technological change? This Review examines the influence of culture on a selection of low-carbon technologies and behavioural practices that reflect different dimensions of sustainability. Based on a typology of low-carbon technology and behaviour, we explore the cultural dimensions of four specific cases: eco-driving, ridesharing, automated vehicles and whole-house retrofits. We conclude with recommendations for those seeking to analyse, understand, develop, demonstrate and deploy low-carbon innovations for sustainable energy transitions. Culture influences low-carbon energy transitions and as a result should be considered in the design of relevant policies. Focusing on a selection of low-carbon technologies and behavioural practices, this Review highlights the role of culture with respect to different dimensions of sustainability.

Smart home technologies (SHT) refer to devices that provide some degree of digitally connected, automated, or enhanced services to household occupants. Smart homes have become prominent in recent technology and policy discussions about energy efficiency, climate change, and the sustainability of buildings. Nevertheless, how might culture shape the diffusion and use of the technologies used in smart homes? What cultural barriers may impede their adoption, or embed more carbon-intensive lifestyles? Lastly, do smart home technologies truly promote sustainability goals? Based on an extensive original dataset involving expert interviews in four countries—Japan, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and original media content analysis, this study explores the cultural aspects of smart home technology adoption as well as the consequent impacts on sustainability. In doing so, the study elaborates on an array of social, technical, political, economic and environmental dimensions of smart home technology diffusion, with clear implications for research, policy, and technology development. In this sense, we call for more comprehensive, progressive, innovative and sensitive technology design so as to advance SHT adoption and fulfill some of the sustainability and climate objectives their advocates continually promise.

We conduct a comprehensive mapping and cost analysis of the renewable energy (RE) technology options available to the United Arab Emirate’s (UAE) energy system. Based on projected demand and the true (unsubsidized) costs of fossil fuel supply, the substitution cost of each option and its respective potential is estimated. We demonstrate that a significant acceleration of the existing RE plans can be achieved with positive economic benefits for a number of options – before accounting for health and environmental benefits, or new opportunities for hydrocarbon exports – and that the full portfolio can be completed at a cost that is less than 1 US Dollar (USD) per gigajoule (GJ) when accounting for the avoided subsidies by 2030. Growing opportunity cost of gas, falling solar prices and abundant solar resources are the biggest drivers behind these results. Cumulatively implementation of these options results in RE contributing to 10% of UAE’s total final energy consumption in 2030. This achievement, seen in the context of the global effort to increase renewable energy penetration, is relatively limited, but the rates of increase in RE deployment are actually among the highest internationally given the low starting point and the unavailability of traditional RE sources (biomass and hydro) in the UAE. Moreover, they herald the implications of RE’s rapid shift to cost-competitiveness in a country like the UAE.

While all countries belonging to the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) have set targets for renewable energy deployment at national or local levels, progress to date has been minimal. Analysis of renewables deployment initiatives around the world shows that success is highest when stated targets are supported by well-defined policy frameworks that reflect the regional context. This chapter investigates current trends in renewable energy and climate policy with the aim of helping to identify the most effective and feasible recommendations to catalyze renewables deployment in GCC countries. To develop an optimal policy framework, the chapter considers the GCC context across multiple dimensions, including the underlying motivations for adoption of renewable energy. The findings show that the international policy trend of using renewables auctions to stimulate deployment is optimally suited to GCC countries. Furthermore, regional energy subsidy reforms currently underway may provide a foundation for future policy frameworks aimed at explicit carbon pricing to support regional renewables deployment. An emissions trading system (ETS) is proposed as the most viable mechanism for such carbon pricing. Thus, a phased approach is suggested to create – and over time strengthen – an integrated energy and climate policy framework.

Cloud-seeding materials as a promising water-augmentation technology have drawn more attention recently. We designed and synthesized a type of core/shell NaCl/TiO2 (CSNT) particle with controlled particle size, which successfully adsorbed more water vapor (∼295 times at low relative humidity, 20% RH) than that of pure NaCl, deliquesced at a lower environmental RH of 62–66% than the hygroscopic point (hg.p., 75% RH) of NaCl, and formed larger water droplets ∼6–10 times its original measured size area, whereas the pure NaCl still remained as a crystal at the same conditions. The enhanced performance was attributed to the synergistic effect of the hydrophilic TiO2 shell and hygroscopic NaCl core microstructure, which attracted a large amount of water vapor and turned it into a liquid faster. Moreover, the critical particle size of the CSNT particles (0.4–10 μm) as cloud-seeding materials was predicted via the classical Kelvin equation based on their surface hydrophilicity. Finally, the benefits of CSNT parti...

Shale gas resources are proving to be globally abundant and the development of these resources can support the geologic storage of CO2 (carbon dioxide) to mitigate the climate impacts of global carbon emissions from power and industrial sectors. This paper reviews global shale gas resources and considers both the opportunities and challenges for their development. It then provides a review of the literature on opportunities to store CO2 in shale, thus possibly helping to mitigate the impact of CO2 emissions from the power and industrial sectors. The studies reviewed indicate that the opportunity for geologic storage of CO2 in shales is significant, but knowledge of the characteristics of the different types of shale gas found globally is required. The potential for CO2 sorption as part of geologic storage in depleted shale gas reservoirs must be assessed with respect to the individual geology of each formation. Likewise, the introduction of CO2 into shale for enhanced gas recovery (EGR) operations may significantly improve both reservoir performance and economics. Based on this review, we conclude that there is a very good opportunity globally regarding the future of geologic storage of CO2 in depleted shale gas formations and as part of EGR operations.

(2014). KEY VERBATIM EXCERPTS FROM: Mental Health's Market Experiment: Commissioning Psychological Therapies through Any Qualified Provider. Self & Society: Vol. 42, No. 1-2, pp. 7-17.

The United Arab Emirates (UAE), despite its small size, is emerging into an influential player in global energy geopolitics. Perhaps counter intuitively, the UAE can successfully leverage a sustainable energy transition to strengthen its position as a global energy leader while providing tangible economic and environmental benefits. To be executed successfully, a sustainable energy transition (SET) requires a careful consideration of available options but also political alignment and popular buy-in. The existence of significant energy subsidies on the demand side differentiates the option space as well as the benefit structure of fossil fuel rich states from other nations that have already progressed toward high penetration of renewable energy. A techno-economic assessment of SET options based on a novel Integrated Energy Model (EIEM) indicates that, under plausible assumptions for fossil fuel costs, the benefits of SET outweigh implementation costs. Keywords: Sustainable energy transition, Energy economics, Renewable energy, UAE energy policy

The Gambling Act 2005 reformed the gambling market with far-reaching implications for the market as a whole, and casino gambling in particular. A small survey was conducted in Swansea to review community perceptions of casinos in their locality. This paper examines the alleged benefits of gambling and to discuss the concern that the Gambling Act will be likely to harm those who are most deprived and vulnerable in society. This paper explores the advantages and disadvantages to the establishment of a casino and its perceived impacts on local families and communities. Issues such as fear of an increase in crime and increases in poverty, ill-health and family breakdown were all important to respondents and are discussed in this paper. In summary, the majority of all respondents had a negative attitude towards gambling, which reflects the findings of the British Gambling Prevalence Survey. During conversations it became evident that the respondents' attitudes towards the casino gambling were formed based on t...

The Emerging Church Movement is understood by many to be seeking fresh expressions of church. for a contemporary culture. However, setting this movement in a broader historical ecclesiological context provides substantial food for thought on the theological motifs and practical outworking of such 'new' communities. Assessing the self-defined principles of emerging church against the writing and history of the Reformation illustrates that both the questions and solutions that ECM seek to address have afar deeper historical and theological location.

Demand for electrical power across the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is growing rapidly because of rising population, growing urbanization, and economic growth driven by industrialization. The objective of this paper is to analyze the market requirements and trends for the different types of fuels and power generation technologies that can be utilized in the coming years to meet the growing demand for power generation for the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries and Iran, Iraq, and Egypt (referred to in this report as GCC+ countries). The GCC+ countries have historically relied on fossil fuels for power generation, but these fuels are becoming increasing costly for power generation as a result of import costs for fuel importing countries and opportunity costs for fuel exporting countries. The hydrocarbon fuels considered in this study are both conventional and nonconventional, including sweet gas, sour gas, tight gas, shale gas, crude oil, heavy fuel oil, and diesel oil. We assess...

In 1999, disease outbreaks in juvenile Atlantic cod Gadus morhua that showed the classic signs of viral encephalopathy and retinopathy (VER) were reported in Nova Scotia. Brain and retinal tissues from moribund cod showed diffuse degenerative vacuolative encephalopathy and degenerative histiocytic retinitis. The affected brain and retinal tissues were observed to be positive for nodaviral antigens by means of immunohistochemical techniques. We partially characterized a nodavirus-like agent from brain and eye tissues and cell culture using reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and primer sets originally designed for amplification of white trevally Caranx dentex (also known as striped jack Pseudocaranx dentex) and Atlantic halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossus nervous necrosis virus coat (capsid) proteins. Sequencing of the T2 region of the coat protein revealed high similarities (>85% nucleotide identity) to the coat protein genes of other fish nodavirus strains, especially those of Atlantic...

The isolation and characterisation of a gene encoding the putative matrix proteins of infectious salmon anaemia virus (ISAV) is reported. Following identification of an ISAV-specific sequence from a cDNA library, RACE-PCR was used to identify a mRNA transcript of approximately 1.2 kb containing the ISAV consensus sequence GCTAAGA at the 5' end. Although the cDNA transcript and its putative protein product did not possess high homology with other orthomyxoviral sequences, similarity to a paramyxovirus fusion glycoprotein and viral cell surface proteins was identified. The size of this transcript suggested that it was derived from segment 7 of the ISAV genome and encoded the matrix proteins. Like syntenic segments of other orthomyxoviruses, this segment was shown to encode at least two matrix proteins, M1 and M2. The existence of M1 and M2 ISAV mRNA was demonstrated by RT-PCR and sequencing, with the M1 transcript being more abundant than the M2 in infected cell cultures, as is found in other orthomyxoviruses. Nucleotide sequence comparison of segment 7 of the ISAV genome from isolates of different geographic origin indicated it to be the one of the most variable of the ISAV genes characterised to date.

This article explores one example of ministry to a notoriously difficult 1960s youth culture: the bikers. The article breaks new ground in detailing for the first time in print the ministry of a most remarkable man, Father Bill Shergold. As well as being a historically important and fascinating story, the article provides real challenge to modern youth ministry methodologies.

A major limitation to marine finfish culture is the sudden and substantial increase in mortality frequently referred to as a “larval crash.” Contamination of the production system with opportunistic pathogenic bacteria has frequently been implicated as a cause of this mortality. In studies designed to test this hypothesis, 15 larval haddock from 16 tanks were sampled weekly between hatching and weaning in spring 2000 for their bacterial 16S rDNA profiles by polymerase chain reaction amplification combined with denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR−DGGE). The profiles obtained were generally dominated by fewer than five bands. A well-defined trend in bacterial succession was observed during the growth of the haddock larvae, the diversity of bacterial species being greater at the onset but invariably ending with a singular predominance by a species with 16S rDNA homology to various α-Proteobacteria such as Roseobacter. Sequence analysis of a larger fragment of 16S rDNA (1,437 nucleotides) of...

Infectious Salmon Anaemia is a serious disease of farmed Atlantic Salmon on three continents. The disease causes severe anaemia and haemorrphagic liver necrosis, and carries major economic consequences for affected areas. Nevertheless, the causative agent, a novel orthomyxo-like Virus (Infectious Salmon Anaemia Virus – ISAV), is only partially characterized at the molecular level. We report the isolation and characterization of two novel ISAV segments at the genomic and proteomic levels. These segments are the third and fourth largest of the (ISAV) genome and may code for a nucleocapsid protein (NP) and a polymerase (PA). Western blot analysis using an ISAV polyclonal antibody identified one of these novel proteins as being the major tissue antigen. We discuss the implications of our findings for vaccine development and surveillance of Infectious Salmon Anaemia.

Supporting People All the Way, a review for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation by Steve Griffiths, examines the Supporting People programme in the context of other government plans. Looking at the boundary between residential care and the Supporting People programme, the review finds arbitrary divisions which undermine the programme's objectives, and argues for a redrawing of the boundary with a more coherent relationship between the Government's commitments to foster independent living and to provide personal care.

We evaluated the behavioral effects of the fluctuating temperature regime on spawning phase smallmouth bass in a thermal discharge canal on Lake Erie. Fiftythree adult fish were angled from the discharge canal at the beginning of the 1994 spawning season and implanted with temperature sensing radio transmitters. The distribution of tagged fish in the discharge canal was continuously monitored and recorded from late June to early October using three fixed monitoring stations. Seventeen of the tagged fish left the discharge canal immediately following tagging and did not return. The remaining fish, particularly males guarding nests, resided in the heated discharge during the spawning period despite daily temperature fluctuations of up to 16°C. Some females and non-nesting and post-nesting males moved in and out of the discharge canal throughout the study period. Fish numbers within the canal declined throughout the summer and, by early October, all tagged bass had left the discharge. Water temperat...

As the United Arab Emirates is diversifying its energy sources, it is increasingly looking towards solar photovoltaic technology as a viable option. A key factor in promoting this option is the capability to forecast financial viability of solar projects. This paper uses stochastic analysis instead of deterministic analysis and applies it on potential UAE solar power projects to obtain a wider understanding of the variability associated with financial performance, based on the variability and uncertainty in independent input variables.

Piscine nodaviruses (Betanodaviridae) are frequently reported from a variety of cultured and wild finfishes. These non-enveloped, single-stranded RNA virions cause viral encephalopathy and retinopathy (VER), also known as viral nervous necrosis (VNN) or fish encephalitis. Recently, nodavirus infections have posed serious problems for larval and juvenile cultured halibut Hippo- glossus hippoglossus in Norway and Scotland. To date, no such viruses have been described from any cultured or wild pleuronectid in Atlantic Canada. Obviously, there exists a need to survey wild pop- ulations of pleuronectids to assess the risk of potential transfer of nodavirus from wild to caged fishes. This paper presents the results of monthly surveys (April 2000 to March 2001) of viruses from wild winter flounder Pleuronectes americanus collected from Passamaquoddy Bay, New Brunswick, Canada. Tissue samples from wild flounder were screened initially on commercial cell lines (EPC, SSN-1, SHK and CHSE-214) for any evidence of cytopathic effect (CPE). After confirmation of CPE, nodavirus identification was achieved using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT- PCR) analysis. We detected nodavirus from only 1 out of 440 flounder (0.23%) examined. This is the first report of piscine nodavirus isolated from wild winter flounder in Atlantic Canada, and although this prevalence may seem low, we discuss the implications of this finding for Canada's emerging halibut aquaculture industry.

The characterisation of 2 infectious salmon anemia virus (ISAV) proteins is described. Proteins were harvested from ISAV-infected Chinook salmon embryo (CHSE)-214 cell culture by continuous elution denaturing gel electrophoresis, enabling the harvest of specific molecular weight fractions. Through the use of a polyclonal antiserum to ISAV, it was possible to identify a potentially autolytic major antigen of 72 kDa and a glycosylated protein of approximately 38 kDa which varied in size depending on cell line compatibility. N-terminal amino acid sequencing of the glycosylated proteins suggests that it is encoded by segment 6 of the ISAV genome. Further, sequence analysis of the glycosylated protein account for the variable molecular weight and may explain differences in host cell compatibility.

Human interleukin-7 (IL-7) is a cytokine that appears to be critical for early T- and B-cell development and although IL-7 is currently under investigation as a therapeutic agent in a variety of hematolymphopoietic disorders, there have been few instances of the detection or investigation of this cytokine using a biological assay. This has been due, in the main, to the lack of a widely available, stable, easy to maintain and use, IL-7 responsive cell line. We have developed a pre-B-cell line, PB-1, from murine bone marrow, that is dependent on IL-7 for growth and has been maintained continually for up to 1 year without loss of responsiveness. The cells survive freezing and reviving, having been stored for periods of up to 4 years. The IL-7 bioassay is reproducible and sensitive, able to reliably detect 50 pg/ml IL-7. The assay is completely unresponsive to any other stimulatory cytokines tested and is not affected by a wide variety of inhibitory cytokines, with the exception of high levels of interferon alpha. The assay can be made completely specific for human IL-7 by including specific neutralizing antibodies for IL-7 and has been shown to be suitable for the estimation of IL-7 in both plasma and serum samples.