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Fluid-driven fracturing is a key process in enhancing production in both the hydrocarbon and geothermal energy extraction industries. However, whilst a large number of studies have now developed laboratory methods to simulate the process in a range of settings, and across a number of different rock types, data relating the fundamental material parameters (such as fracture toughness) to the overall rock mechanics response as a function of parameters such as confining and pore pressure remain limited. Here we report a new analysis to recover fracture toughness across a range of effective pressures from hydraulic fracturing experiments that use a modified thick-walled cylinder sample mounted in a conventional triaxial deformation apparatus. We use samples that are 90mm in length and 40mm diameter, with a central, axially drilled borehole 12.6 mm in diameter. An array of 16 ports in the engineered, nitrile, sample jacket allows us to record radial strain (4 channels), acoustic emission output (11 channels) and borehole fluid pressure (1 channel) continuously throughout each test. The sample material was Nash Point shale (NPS) from the south coast of Wales, UK, with samples cored both normal and parallel to bedding in order to investigate the effect of anisotropy. Earlier, ambient pressure fracture toughness tests using the Semi-Circular Bend sample geometry had indicated significant anisotropy, values of 0.24 – 0.30 MPa.m1/2 in the Short-Transverse (ST) orientation, and 0.71 - 0.73 MPa.m1/2 in the Divider (DIV) orientation.Here, we present results from a suite of 9 experiments, 6 with samples cored parallel to bedding (ST fracture orientation) and 3 with samples cored normal to bedding (DIV fracture orientation). We find that the fluid injection pressure required to fracture our annular shell samples is significantly higher for DIV samples than for ST samples, and increases significantly with increasing confining pressure in both orientations; ranging from 10 to 36 MPa for ST samples and 30 to 58 MPa for DIV samples as confining pressure is increased from 2.2 to 20.5 MPa. We note that the fluid injection pressure undergoes a number of oscillations between fracture nucleation and the fracture reaching the sample boundary. Such oscillations are more common in ST samples than in DIV samples, and in experiments at lower confining pressures. We use the magnitude of each pressure oscillation to estimate the associated increment of fracture extension via the proportion of AE energy generated relative to the total energy accumulated when the fracture reaches the sample boundary. This analysis produces fracture toughness values ranging from 0.36 to 2.76 MPa.m1/2 (ST orientation) and 2.98 to 4.05 MPa.m1/2 (DIV orientation) as confining pressure was increased from 2.2 to 20.5 MPa. We further find that the increase in fracture toughness increases essentially linearly with increasing effective pressure, and this trend appears to be independent of orientation and the material anisotropy.

Permeability in tight crustal rocks is primarily controlled by the connected porosity, shape and orientation of microcracks, the preferred orientation of cross-bedding, and sedimentary features such as layering. This leads to a significant permeability anisotropy. Less well studied, however, are the effects of time and stress recovery on the evolution of the permeability hysteresis which is becoming increasingly important in areas ranging from fluid migration in ore-forming processes to enhanced resource extraction. Here, we report new data simulating spatio-temporal permeability changes induced using effective pressure, simulating burial depth, on a tight sandstone (Crab Orchard). We find an initially (measured at 5 MPa) anisotropy of 2.5% in P-wave velocity and 180% in permeability anisotropy is significantly affected by the direction of the effective pressure change and cyclicity; anisotropy values decrease to 1% and 10% respectively after 3 cycles to 90 MPa and back. Furthermore, we measure a steadily increasing recovery time (10–20 min) for flow parallel to cross-bedding, and a far slower recovery time (20–50 min) for flow normal to cross-bedding. These data are interpreted via strain anisotropy and accommodation models, similar to the “seasoning” process often used in dynamic reservoir extraction.

A number of key processes, both natural and anthropogenic, involve the fracture of rocks subjected to tensile stress, including vein growth and mineralization, and the extraction of hydrocarbons through hydraulic fracturing. In each case, the fundamental material property of mode‐I fracture toughness must be overcome in order for a tensile fracture to propagate. Whilst measuring this parameter is relatively straightforward at ambient pressure, estimating fracture toughness of rocks at depth, where they experience confining pressure, is technically challenging. Here, we report a new analysis that combines results from thick‐walled cylinder burst tests with quantitative acoustic emission to estimate the mode‐I fracture toughness (KIc) of Nash Point Shale at confining pressure simulating in‐situ conditions to approximately 1km depth. In the most favorable orientation, the pressure required to fracture the rock shell (injection pressure, Pinj) increases from 6.1 MPa at 2.2 MPa confining pressure (Pc), to 34 MPa at 20 MPa confining pressure. When fractures are forced to cross the shale bedding, the required injection pressures are 30.3 MPa (at Pc = 4.5 MPa) and 58 MPa (Pc = 20 MPa), respectively. Applying the model of Abou‐Sayed (1978) to estimate the initial flaw size, we calculate that this pressure increase equates to an increase in KIc from 0.36 to 4.05 MPa.m1/2 as differential fluid pressure (Pinj ‐ Pc) increases from 3.2 to 22.0 MPa. We conclude that the increasing pressure due to depth in the Earth will have a significant influence on fracture toughness, which is also a function of the inherent anisotropy.

Many of the grand challenges in volcanic and magmatic research are focused on understanding the dynamics of highly heterogeneous systems and the critical conditions that enable magmas to move or eruptions to initiate. From the formation and development of magma reservoirs, through propagation and arrest of magma, to the conditions in the conduit, gas escape, eruption dynamics, and beyond into the environmental impacts of that eruption, we are trying to define how processes occur, their rates and timings, and their causes and consequences. However, we are usually unable to observe the processes directly. Here we give a short synopsis of the new capabilities and highlight the potential insights that in situ observation can provide. We present the XRheo and Pele furnace experimental apparatus and analytical toolkit for the in situ X-ray tomography-based quantification of magmatic microstructural evolution during rheological testing. We present the first 3D data showing the evolving textural heterogeneity within a shearing magma, highlighting the dynamic changes to microstructure that occur from the initiation of shear, and the variability of the microstructural response to that shear as deformation progresses. The particular shear experiments highlighted here focus on the effect of shear on bubble coalescence with a view to shedding light on both magma transport and fragmentation processes. The XRheo system is intended to help us understand the microstructural controls on the complex and non-Newtonian evolution of magma rheology, and is therefore used to elucidate the many mobilization, transport, and eruption phenomena controlled by the rheological evolution of a multi-phase magmatic flows. The detailed, in situ characterization of sample textures presented here therefore represents the opening of a new field for the accurate parameterization of dynamic microstructural control on rheological behavior.

Unconventional hydrocarbon resources found across the world are driving a renewed interest in mudrock hydraulic fracturing methods. However, given the difficulty in safely measuring the various controlling factors in a natural environment, considerable challenges remain in understanding the fracture process. To investigate, we report a new laboratory study that simulates hydraulic fracturing using a conventional triaxial apparatus. We show that fracture orientation is primarily controlled by external stress conditions and the inherent rock anisotropy and fabric are critical in governing fracture initiation, propagation, and geometry. We use anisotropic Nash Point Shale (NPS) from the early Jurassic with high elastic P wave anisotropy (56%) and mechanical tensile anisotropy (60%), and highly anisotropic (cemented) Crab Orchard Sandstone with P wave/tensile anisotropies of 12% and 14%, respectively. Initiation of tensile fracture requires 36 MPa for NPS at 1-km simulated depth and 32 MPa for Crab Orchard Sandstone, in both cases with cross-bedding favorable orientated. When unfavorably orientated, this increases to 58 MPa for NPS at 800-m simulated depth, far higher as fractures must now traverse cross-bedding. We record a swarm of acoustic emission activity, which exhibits spectral power peaks at 600 and 100 kHz suggesting primary fracture and fluid-rock resonance, respectively. The onset of the acoustic emission data precedes the dynamic instability of the fracture by 0.02 s, which scales to ~20 s for ~100-m size fractures. We conclude that a monitoring system could become not only a forecasting tool but also a means to control the fracking process to prevent avoidable seismic events.

The process of hydraulic fracture is well known in both natural (e.g. veining and mineralisation) and engineered environments (e.g. stimulating tight mudrocks and sandstones to boost their hydraulic properties). Here, we report a method and preliminary data that simulates both tensile fracture and fluid flow at elevated pressures. To achieve this we developed a sample assembly consisting of a cylindrical core drilled with an axial borehole encapsulated in a 3D printed jacket permitting fluid from the borehole to move through the freshly generated tensile fracture to a voluometer. The permeability of Nash Point Shale increases from a pre-fracture value of 10−18 to 10−20 m2 (1 microDarcy, μD to 0.01 μD) to 2 × 10−15 m2 (2 milliDarcy, mD) immediately after fracture (at 2.1 MPa confining pressure). Permeability is strongly dependent on confining pressure, decreasing to 0.25 × 10−15 m2 (0.25 mD) at 19 MPa confining pressure (approximately 800 m depth), and does not recover when confinement is removed. Using concomitant measurements of the radial strain as a proxy for fracture aperture, we conclude that the effective permeability is governed solely by the width of the developed cracks, revealed by post-test X-Ray Computed Tomography to be planar, extending radially from the central conduit.

Fluid-induced seismicity has been observed and recorded for decades. Seismic energy necessarily requires a source, which is frequently related to rock fracture either in compression or tension. In both cases, such fracture may be promoted by crustal fluids. In this paper, we review some of the advances in the field of fluid-induced seismicity, with a particular focus on the use and application of new and innovative laboratory methods to better understand the complex, coupled, processes in shallow sub-surface energy extraction applications. We discuss the current state-of-the-art with specific reference to Thermal-Hydraulic-Coupling in volcanotectonic environments, which has a long history of fluid-driven seismic events linked to deep fluid movement. This ranges from local earthquakes to fluid-driven resonance, known as volcanic tremor. More recently so-called non-volcanic tremor has been identified in a range of scenarios where motion at an interface is primarily driven by fluids rather than significant stress release. Finally, we review rock fracture in the tensile regime which occurs naturally and in the engineered environment for developing fractures for the purpose of resource extraction, such as hydraulic fracturing in unconventional hydrocarbon industry or developing Hot-Dry-Rock geothermal reservoirs.