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Climate-controlled cabins have for decades been standard in vehicles. Model Predictive Controllers (MPCs) have shown promising results in achieving temperature tracking in vehicle cabins and may improve upon model-free control performance. However, for the multi-zone climate control case, proper controller tuning is challenging, as externally, e.g., passenger-triggered changes in compressor setting and thus mass flow lead to degraded control performance. This paper presents a tuning method to automatically determine robust MPC parameters, as a function of the blower mass flow. Constrained contextual Bayesian optimization (BO) is used to derive policies minimizing a high-level cost function subject to constraints in a defined scenario. The proposed method leverages random disturbances and model-plant mismatch within the training episodes to generate controller parameters achieving robust disturbance rejection. The method contains a postprocessing step to achieve smooth policies that can be utilized in real-world applications. First, simulation results show that the mass flow-dependent policy outperforms a constant parametrization, while achieving the desired closed-loop behavior. Second, the robust tuning method greatly reduces worst-case overshoot and produces consistent closed-loop behavior under varying operating conditions., Comment: Accepted for publication in the proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), 2023

The performance of navigation algorithms significantly determines the trajectory tracking accuracy of the guidance, navigation, and control (GNC) system of an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV). In closed-loop operation, the interaction among path planning, control, and navigation plays a crucial role in the tracking accuracy of the overall GNC system. A Doppler velocity log (DVL) is often used for AUVs to measure velocity over the ground, positively affecting the closed-loop tracking error. However, a DVL may not be installed in miniaturized AUVs due to limited space and energy. In this paper, a navigation filter for an underactuated miniature AUV (nanoAUV) is considered that is mainly based on acoustic localization using a novel highly-miniaturized ultra-short baseline (USBL) system and a depth pressure sensor. The nanoAUV is being developed for subglacial lake exploration. We compare two unscented Kalman filters (UKF) with different prediction models - the classical strapdown inertial navigation systems (SINS) model and a hydrodynamic motion model (HMM). To enable a fair comparison, filter parameters are auto-tuned with Bayesian optimization (BO) for open and closed-loop performance, which is novel in AUV navigation. The results indicate that BO performs similarly to particle swarm optimization (PSO) regarding sample efficiency for the proposed problem. To quantify the GNC tracking performance, we use extensive Monte Carlo simulations. Results suggest that with BO-tuned navigation filter parameters, the median tracking error is reduced by up to 50% compared to default parametrization., Comment: This work has been accepted to IFAC World Congress 2023 in Yokohama, Japan

Model predictive control (MPC) is a promising approach for the lateral and longitudinal control of autonomous vehicles. However, the parameterization of the MPC with respect to high-level requirements such as passenger comfort as well as lateral and longitudinal tracking is a challenging task. Numerous tuning parameters as well as conflicting requirements need to be considered. This contribution formulates the MPC tuning task as a multi-objective optimization problem. Solving it is challenging for two reasons: First, MPC-parameterizations are evaluated on an computationally expensive simulation environment. As a result, the used optimization algorithm needs to be as sampleefficient as possible. Second, for some poor parameterizations the simulation cannot be completed and therefore useful objective function values are not available (learning with crash constraints). In this contribution, we compare the sample efficiency of multi-objective particle swarm optimization (MOPSO), a genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) and multiple versions of Bayesian optimization (BO). We extend BO, by introducing an adaptive batch size to limit the computational overhead and by a method on how to deal with crash constraints. Results show, that BO works best for a small budget, NSGA-II is best for medium budgets and for large budgets none of the evaluated optimizers is superior to random search. Both proposed BO extensions are shown to be beneficial., Comment: 10 pages, 6 figures

Controller tuning based on black-box optimization allows to automatically tune performance-critical parameters w.r.t. mostly arbitrary high-level closed-loop control objectives. However, a comprehensive benchmark of different black-box optimizers for control engineering problems has not yet been conducted. Therefore, in this contribution, 11 different versions of Bayesian optimization (BO) are compared with seven metaheuristics and other baselines on a set of ten deterministic simulative single-objective tuning problems in control. Results indicate that deterministic noise, low multimodality, and substantial areas with infeasible parametrizations (crash constraints) characterize control engineering tuning problems. Therefore, a flexible method to handle crash constraints with BO is presented. A resulting increase in sample efficiency is shown in comparison to standard BO. Furthermore, benchmark results indicate that pattern search (PS) performs best on a budget of 25 d objective function evaluations and a problem dimensionality d of d = 2. Bayesian adaptive direct search, a combination of BO and PS, is shown to be most sample efficient for 3 <= d <= 5. Using these optimizers instead of random search increases controller performance by on average 6.6% and up to 16.1%., Comment: 13 pages, 9 figures

The performance of a guidance, navigation and control (GNC) system of an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) heavily depends on the correct tuning of its parameters. Our objective is to automatically tune these parameters with respect to arbitrary high-level control objectives within different operational scenarios. In contrast to literature, an overall tuning is performed for the entire GNC system, which is new in the context of autonomous underwater vehicles. The main challenges in solving the optimization problem are computationally expensive objective function evaluations, crashing simulations due to infeasible parametrization and the numerous tunable parameters (in our case 13). These challenges are met by using constrained Bayesian optimization with crash constraints. The method is demonstrated in simulation on a GNC system of an underactuated miniature AUV designed within the TRIPLE-nanoAUV initiative for exploration of sub-glacial lakes. We quantify the substantial reduction in energy consumption achieved by tuning the overall system. Furthermore, different parametrizations are automatically generated for different power consumption functions, robustness, and accuracy requirements. E.g. energy consumption can be reduced by ~28%, if the maximum allowed deviation from the planned path is increased by ~65%. This shows the versatile practical applicability of the optimization-based tuning approach., Comment: Accepted for publication at ECC 2022

This paper tackles the multi-objective optimization of the cost functional of a path-following model predictive control for vehicle longitudinal and lateral control. While the inherent optimal character of the model predictive control and the direct consideration of constraints gives a very powerful tool for many applications, is the determination of an appropriate cost functional a non-trivial task. This results on the one hand from the number of degrees of freedom or the multitude of adjustable parameters and on the other hand from the coupling of these. To overcome this situation a Bayesian optimization procedure is present, which gives the possibility to determine optimal cost functional parameters for a given desire. Moreover, a Pareto-front for a whole set of possible configurations can be computed., Comment: This work has been accepted for publication at 2021 European Control Conference

Control algorithms such as model predictive control (MPC) and state estimators rely on a number of different parameters. The performance of the closed loop usually depends on the correct setting of these parameters. Tuning is often done manually by experts based on a simulation model of the system. Two problems arise with this procedure. Firstly, experts need to be skilled and still may not be able to find the optimal parametrization. Secondly, the performance of the simulation model might not be able to be carried over to the real world application due to model inaccuracies within the simulation. With this contribution, we demonstrate on an industrial milling process how Bayesian optimization can automate the tuning process and help to solve the mentioned problems. Robust parametrization is ensured by perturbing the simulation with arbitrarily distributed model plant mismatches. The objective is to minimize the expected integral reference tracking error, guaranteeing acceptable worst case behavior while maintaining real-time capability. These verbal requirements are translated into a constrained stochastic mixed-integer black-box optimization problem. A two stage min-max-type Bayesian optimization procedure is developed and compared to benchmark algorithms in a simulation study of a CNC machining center. It is showcased how the empirical performance model obtained through Bayesian optimization can be used to analyze and visualize the results. Results indicate superior performance over the case where only the nominal model is used for controller synthesis. The optimized parametrization improves the initial hand-tuned parametrization notably.