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Health effects of trans fatty acids (TFAs) on human organisms can vary according to their type, structure, composition, and origin. Even though the adverse health effects of industrial TFAs (iTFAs) have been widely discussed, the health effects of natural TFAs (nTFAs) are still questionable. Hence, it is important to review the literature and provide an overall picture on the health effects of different TFAs coming from industrial and ruminant sources, underlining those types that have adverse health effects as well as suggesting methods for reducing their harmful effects. Multiple databases (PubMed, Medline, Cochrane Library, etc.) were searched with the key words “trans fatty acid sources”, “ruminant”, “industrial”, “conjugated trans linoleic acid”, “human”, “coronary heart disease”, “cancer”, etc. Reference lists of the studies were scanned discussing the health effects of iTFAs and nTFAs. The review of the literature showed that iTFAs are found to be more harmful than ruminant-produced nTFAs. Although several beneficial effects (such as reduced risk of diabetes) for nTFAs have been observed, they should be used with caution. Since during labeling it is usually not mentioned whether the TFAs contained in food are of industrial or natural origin, the general suggestion is to reduce their consumption.

Mining industry is one of the priority sectors of Armenia's economy. However, mining complexes without treatment facilities, such as those in Armenia, have adverse environmental impact. Moreover, soil contamination can pose a potential risk to human health, particularly, through the consumption of food crops. In this study, 12 soil and 32 vegetable composite samples were collected from the city of Kajaran where Armenia's biggest copper and molybdenum mine is located. The concentrations of Cu, Mo, Cd, Hg, As, and Pb were analyzed using atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Diet study was conducted using food frequency questionnaire. Non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks to human health through vegetable consumption were assessed. The results indicated that different vegetables have different trace element uptakes. Also, the transfer factors (TFs) for each vegetable varied across elements. TFs were less than 1 for the majority of trace elements. Nevertheless, in some samples of studied vegetables, the concentrations of Hg, Cd, and Pb exceeded the maximum allowable levels. THQ of Mo exceeded 1 for all the studied vegetables, while THQ of Cu exceeded 1 for potato and bean, indicating a potential health risk posed by chronic exposure. Exceedingly high levels of Mo exposure can be related to high incidence of anemia among Armenians, since Mo interacts with Cu and is a potential cause of copper deficiency-induced anemia. With regard to cancer risk, none of the carcinogenic risk values exceeded the threshold level.

Fruits and vegetables grown under the impact of Armenia’s mining industry are widely sold in markets of adjacent towns. As the share of fruits and vegetables in Armenians’ diet is significant, the present study aims to assess the dietary exposure of potentially toxic trace elements through the intake of fruits and vegetables sold in Kapan town, located in the biggest mining region of Armenia. The concentrations of Cu, Mo, Ni, Cr, Pb, Zn, Hg, As, and Cd in 15 types of fruits and vegetables were determined. Non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks were assessed. Although the estimated daily intakes of trace elements for each studied food item did not exceed health-based guidelines values, in case of the combined consumption of fruits and vegetables estimated cumulative daily intakes exceeded reference doses for Cu and Mo. Moreover, carcinogenic risk for the majority of fruits and vegetables exceeded the EPA recommended risk level of 10−6, indicating adverse health effect to local population. The outcomes of this study can serve as a basis for further research that will consider many other exposure pathways (i.e., inhalation or dermal pathways) in order to ensure the safety of the residents living under the impact of mining industry.

Malachite Green (MG) has a worldwide application in aquaculture as a therapeutic agent; however, its use in food producing animals is illegal, due to potential carcinogenicity and persistence of residues. This pilot study, the first conducted in Armenia, aimed to determine the concentration of MG residues in flesh of fish grown in artificial ponds of Armenia and conduct dietary exposure assessment to characterize possible health risks to consumers. Detection of MG residues, including the major metabolite leucomalachite, was carried out in 29 fish composite samples by ELISA. The results were confirmed by LC-MS/MS. To determine fish consumption values, a food frequency questionnaire was used. Possible health risks were evaluated by calculating the Margin of Exposure (MOE) based on BMDL of 13 (neoplastic effects) and 6 (non-neoplastic effects) mg/kg bw. In 34.5% of the investigated fish samples MG residues exceeded the minimum required performance limit. For BMDL10 and BMDL0.5, the MOEs ranged 3.36E+06–3.37E+07 and 1.55E+06–1.55E+07, respectively. The MOE for neoplastic effects was more than 10,000 and for non-neoplastic effects was more than 100. The results do not indicate public health concerns. However, the results highlight issues concerning the illegal use of MG in Armenian aquaculture, which deserves further attention.

Honey is a highly nutritious natural product widely produced and consumed by people in Shirak and Syunik regions of Armenia. Unlike Shirak, Syunik is under the impact of mining industry. Since the environmental pollution can adversely impact the safety of honey and entail a probable risk to human health, it is important to evaluate the presence of potentially toxic trace elements in honey samples from both regions and draw comparisons. This study assesses the dietary exposure to trace elements and persistent organic pollutants through the intake of honey for the first time among people in Shirak and Syunik regions. 24-hour dietary recall method was used to investigate the consumption of honey. The presence of seven trace elements (Pb, Cd, As, Hg, Cu, Zn, and Ni) and persistent organic pollutants (hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites) were determined in honey samples using atomic absorption spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, respectively. In several samples, the concentrations of Cu were above the maximum allowable level. Non-carcinogenic risk values did not exceed the acceptable level, while carcinogenic risk values for Ni and As exceeded the risk level of 10-6 in both regions. Moreover, among the persistent organic pollutants, only the concentration of DDT in honey from Shirak was above the European Union maximum residue level.