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Abstract Human relationships with nature may sometimes manifest through fear, disgust and other disease‐avoidance mechanisms. While there is an evolutionary utility to these so‐called ‘biophobias’, many people exhibit phobic responses towards organisms that pose no tangible threats, potentially leading to excessive anxiety and avoidance of interactions with nature. Understanding the drivers of the prevalence and spread of biophobias in modern societies is, therefore, a growing concern. Here, we posit that online information‐seeking patterns may reveal general insights into biophobias. Using a culturomics approach, we gathered temporal (2004–2022) and country‐level data on the volume of internet searches for 25 biophobias, as well as 25 general phobias acting as a benchmark group. We explored temporal trends in the volume of search for each biophobias and modelled relationships between search volume for biophobias and five country‐level variables. We observed a steady increase in online search volume for biophobias between 2004 and 2022. Yet, there were marked differences in individual trends, with 17 biophobias showing positive, three negative and five stationary temporal trends. Arachnophobia (fear of spiders) attracted the most interest, followed by mysophobia (fear of microbes) and parasitophobia (fear of parasites). The United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Mexico and India recorded wide interest in most biophobias, whereas 49% of countries showed no search volume for any biophobia. Search patterns for biophobias were strongly associated with the percentage of urban population, urban population growth and the number of extant venomous species in a given country. Conversely, search patterns for biophobias were weakly correlated with the incidence of anxiety disorders in a country's population and the likelihood of encounters with venomous animals. Our results provide quantitative support to the hypothesis that biophobias are broadly prevalent and possibly increasing as a result of widespread urbanisation and loss of experiences with nature. We suggest that people affected by biophobic disorders may be using the Internet as a key venue to seek relevant information to appraise their condition and identify coping mechanisms. These findings have broad ramifications for understanding and mitigating human–wildlife conflicts and the prevalence of widespread biophobic sentiments in modern societies.

Abstract The global decline in insect biomass has far‐reaching implications for terrestrial and freshwater food webs, impacting species reliant on insects as a crucial component of their diet. This issue extends to species traditionally considered agricultural pests, such as the common cockchafer Melolontha melolontha. In the race to combat cockchafers through collection, insecticide use, and other control methods, the repercussions of their numerical fluctuations on predators, including species of high conservation importance like bats, have been largely overlooked. Drawing on 31‐years of monitoring data for a greater horseshoe bat Rhinolophus ferrumequinum population in the Aosta Valley (Western Italian Alps), we investigated whether annual fluctuations in bat counts are influenced by cockchafer availability and weather conditions. Despite an overall positive trend in bat abundance, we observed pronounced annual fluctuations, mostly driven by cockchafer availability rather than variations in temperature and precipitation. Furthermore, we found a significant association between cockchafer availability and the median date of birth and birth rate of bats. Births occurred approximately 5 days earlier in cockchafer flight years, with earlier births also linked to warmer spring temperatures and higher numbers of warm days in April. Moreover, the ratio pups/older bats was 0.56 in cockchafer flight years, compared to 0.47 in other years. Our results underscore the importance of considering predator–prey dynamics when examining the long‐term population trends of species of conservation concern. We recommend implementing restrictions on the use of chemicals and other potentially harmful practices that may diminish prey abundance or quality, including that of species considered as agricultural pests. In designing conservation strategies, a delicate balance should be struck between the current interests of farmers and the overarching goal of preserving biodiversity against potential future threats.

Abstract Subterranean ecosystems (comprising terrestrial, semi-aquatic, and aquatic components) are increasingly threatened by human activities; however, the current network of surface-protected areas is inadequate to safeguard subterranean biodiversity. Establishing protected areas for subterranean ecosystems is challenging. First, there are technical obstacles in mapping three-dimensional ecosystems with uncertain boundaries. Second, the rarity and endemism of subterranean organisms, combined with a scarcity of taxonomists, delays the accumulation of essential biodiversity knowledge. Third, establishing agreements to preserve subterranean ecosystems requires collaboration among multiple actors with often competing interests. This perspective addresses the challenges of preserving subterranean biodiversity through protected areas. Even in the face of uncertainties, we suggest it is both timely and critical to assess general criteria for subterranean biodiversity protection and implement them based on precautionary principles. To this end, we examine the current status of European protected areas and discuss solutions to improve their coverage of subterranean ecosystems.

Summary: Show caves are important tourism attractions around the world, generating profits of approximately 850 billion dollars per year. However, the touristic use of caves may jeopardize the conservation of these fragile ecosystems. It is therefore crucial to examine the tourism-related impacts on show caves and the management measures needed to preserve subterranean ecosystems. Here, we analyze the literature published over the last 30 years on show caves with a driver-pressure-state-impact-response (DPSIR) approach, which includes 101 papers examining human impacts on the subterranean ecosystem and 67 papers examining management actions. The introduction of allochthonous microorganisms and microclimate alterations emerged as the most concerning impacts, given their cascading effects on all ecosystem components. Our analysis shows that management actions directly address these impacts, but the use of a multidisciplinary approach is overlooked. As a result, we offer a roadmap for a sustainable and scientifically sound usage of show caves.

Abstract In the Anthropocene, the era when the imprint of humans on nature is pervasive across the planet, it is of utmost importance to understand human relationships with other species. The aesthetics of nature, and of species, is one of the values that plays a role in shaping human-nature relationships. Birds are ubiquitous across the world. The beauty of birds exerts a powerful tug on human emotions, and bird-rich areas attract scores of eco-tourists. People naturally find some birds more beautiful or interesting than others, but we currently lack a global understanding of the specifics of what makes a species aesthetically attractive. Here, we used a global citizen-science database on bird attractiveness covering nearly all extant bird species, to show that there are specific visual features that drive our aesthetic appeal for some bird species over others. First, our aesthetic attraction is highest for smaller birds with specific, vivid colors (e.g., blue and red, and departing from brown-grey) and extreme ornaments (a long crest or tail). Second, our aesthetic attraction is highest for species with broad ranges, possibly because such species may be more familiar to us. The features that make us attracted to a particular bird strongly align with broad human visual aesthetic preferences in modern society. Unveiling the visual features underpinning our aesthetic attraction to birds is a critical step towards optimizing conservation (e.g., via conservation marketing) and education campaigns, and leverage the cultural ecosystem service potential of birds.

Summary: Emojis enable direct expressions of ideas and emotions in digital communication, also contributing to discussions on biodiversity conservation. Nevertheless, the ability of emojis to represent the Earth’s tree of life remains unexplored. Here, we quantified the taxonomic comprehensiveness of currently available nature-related emojis and tested whether the expanding availability of emojis enables a better coverage of extant biodiversity. Currently available emojis encompass a broad range of animal species, while plants, fungi, and microorganisms are underrepresented. Within animals, vertebrates are significantly overrepresented compared to their actual richness, while arthropods are underrepresented. Notwithstanding these taxonomic disparities, animal taxa represented by emojis more than doubled from 2015 to 2022, allowing an improved representation of both taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity, driven by the recent addition of cnidarians and annelids. Creating an inclusive emoji set is essential to ensure a fair representation of biodiversity in digital communication and showcase its importance for biosphere functioning.

Abstract Amidst a global biodiversity crisis, shedding light on the factors that make us like a species can help us understand human’s nature-related attitudes and inform conservation actions, e.g. by leveraging flagship potential and helping identify threats. Despite scattered attempts to quantify birds’ aesthetic attractiveness to humans, there is no large-scale database providing homogeneous measures of aesthetic attractiveness that are comparable across bird species. We present data on the visual aesthetic attractiveness of bird species to humans, generated through an internet browser-based questionnaire. Respondents (n = 6,212) were asked to rate the appearance of bird species on a scale from 1 (low) to 10 (high) based on photographs from the Cornell Lab of Ornithology’s Macaulay Library. The rating scores were modeled to obtain final scores of visual aesthetic attractiveness for each bird. The data covers 11,319 bird species and subspecies, with respondents from multiple backgrounds providing over 400,000 scores. This is the first attempt to quantify the overall visual aesthetic attractiveness of the world’s bird species to humans.

Knowledge of biodiversity is unevenly distributed across the Tree of Life. In the long run, such disparity in awareness unbalances our understanding of life on Earth, influencing policy decisions and the allocation of research and conservation funding. We investigated how humans accumulate knowledge of biodiversity by searching for consistent relationships between scientific (number of publications) and societal (number of views in Wikipedia) interest, and species-level morphological, ecological, and sociocultural factors. Across a random selection of 3019 species spanning 29 Phyla/Divisions, we show that sociocultural factors are the most important correlates of scientific and societal interest in biodiversity, including the fact that a species is useful or harmful to humans, has a common name, and is listed in the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List. Furthermore, large-bodied, broadly distributed, and taxonomically unique species receive more scientific and societal attention, whereas colorfulness and phylogenetic proximity to humans correlate exclusively with societal attention. These results highlight a favoritism toward limited branches of the Tree of Life, and that scientific and societal priorities in biodiversity research broadly align. This suggests that we may be missing out on key species in our research and conservation agenda simply because they are not on our cultural radar.

The touristic use of caves causes multiple environmental alterations to the subterranean ecosystem, having potential effects on all components, from the atmosphere to lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Setting a baseline on the current knowledge of the ecological status of world show caves is pivotal to implement monitoring and management programs aiming at their conservation. However, information on this topic is scattered throughout several publications, making it difficult to access data and ultimately delaying advances towards a sustainable touristic use of show caves. We provide a literature-based dataset relative to the knowledge on the ecological status of 265 show caves worldwide. Data were collated from 289 papers selected through a systematic literature survey of an initial set of more than 1,000 scientific papers. We made the compiled information available through two complementary datasets, reporting: (i) references of the selected papers and (ii) 44 fields relative to the main characteristics of show caves investigated in literature. These fields encompass information about geographic locations, cave general characteristics, natural heritage, and the specific environmental components—and related environmental parameters—investigated in each of the considered study. Such a dataset improves our accessibility to the basic information provided by literature on the ecological status of show caves, also pointing out some literature gaps that should be addressed by future research. By making these data freely available and re-usable, we hope to stimulate research in the field of cave tourism, cave conservation, and cave-based ecology.

The genus Troglohyphantes Joseph, 1882 (Araneae, Linyphiidae) includes 131 species, mainly distributed across the main European mountain ranges. The Alps and the north-western Dinarides account for 66 species, most of them showing narrow or even point-like distributions. The majority of Troglohyphantes spiders dwell in subterranean habitats including caves, mines, soil litter, rocky debris and other moist and shaded retreats. Despite being intensively studied from taxonomic, ecological and biogeographic standpoints, knowledge on the status of conservation and on the potential risk of extinction of these spiders is lagging. To date, only three species have been included in the global IUCN Red List, but their status has not been updated ever since their last assessment in 1996. The aim of this contribution is to assess the Alpine and north-western Dinaric species of the genus Troglohyphantes and to re-assess the species previously evaluated, according to the last version of the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria.Amongst the 66 species here considered, 62 had sufficient data to allow the quantification of their Extent Of Occurrence (EOO) and Area Of Occupancy (AOO). Most of the species have a narrow distribution range, with an estimated EOO < 20,000 km2 and AOO < 2,000 km2, meeting the thresholds for the inclusion in the threatened categories. Five species have a more widespread distribution (EOO > 20,000 km2), extending across multiple countries. The quality of the data on distribution of four species was not sufficient to provide a reliable estimation of the distribution range.A continuing decline in EOO, AOO and habitat quality was inferred for 30 species. The majority of them were subterranean specialised species, with a reduced thermal tolerance and a low dispersal ability. Accordingly, changes in subterranean microclimatic conditions due to climate change represent a major threat for these species. Land-use change and habitat alteration were identified as additional relevant threats for several species.A considerable proportion of the species here assessed was found in protected areas and in sites of the Natura 2000 network. In addition, 14 species are formally protected by national and sub-national legislation. At present, 25 species are listed in the regional Red Lists.Long-term monitoring programmes, management plans for both the species and their habitats, expansion of the extant protected areas and designation of new ones, should be considered as the most effective approaches to species conservation.

Abstract Protected areas are a cornerstone for biodiversity conservation, and typically support more natural and undisturbed habitats compared to unprotected lands. The effect of protected areas on intra-specific ecological niche has been rarely investigated. Here, we explore potential differences in ecological niche properties of birds and mammals across protected and unprotected areas, and relate such differences to species traits. We combine two decades of survey data of birds and mammals from protected and unprotected areas, and apply robust matching to obtain a set of environmentally comparable protected and unprotected sites. Next, we calculate intra-specific niche volume change and habitat shift between protected and unprotected areas, and use generalized linear mixed models to explain these responses with species traits (habitat specialization, body mass, diet, and red list status). The majority of bird and mammal species (83% and 90%, respectively) show different habitat use when occurring within and outside protected areas, with the magnitude of this shift highly varying across species. A minority of species (16% of birds and 10% of mammals) do not change their niche volume nor shift their habitat between protected and unprotected areas. Variation in niche properties is largely unrelated to species traits. Overall, the varying ecological niche responses of birds and mammals to protected areas underscore that there is no universal niche-based response, and that niche responses to land protection are species-specific.

The unsaturated karst represents a transitional zone connecting the land surface to the water table of the underlying saturated zone through percolating water and small perched aquifers. It constitutes a significant groundwater reservoir and hosts a high biodiversity of specialized and endemic species. Whereas investigating this ecotone can shed light on the invertebrate diversity of the whole karst system, ecological studies in the unsaturated karst have been hampered by access, mapping, and sampling challenges. We studied the unsaturated zone of 52 caves in the Lessinian Massif (NE-Italy), which is dominated by carbonate rocks interspersed with spot areas composed mainly of igneous rocks. Our aim was to understand which ecological and historical factors may have shaped the distribution of the groundwater crustacean copepods at a regional spatial scale in the Lessinian unsaturated karst. We collected 33 species belonging to the orders Harpacticoida and Cyclopoida. Species richness estimators and related species accumulation curves suggest an exhaustive sampling effort. A hydrologic analysis performed in a Geographic Information System environment divided the study area in three distinct drainage basins: Eastern Lessini, Lessinian Core, and Western Lessini. Regression analyses indicated that richness of non-stygobitic copepods (i.e., surface-water species which exploit groundwater for different purposes) was mainly driven by inter-basin differences. Richness of stygobitic copepods (i.e., obligate groundwater dwellers) was instead strongly related to lithological features and responded negatively to surface thermal variability. Next, we used a kernel density estimation to spatially explore diversity patterns in the area. The highest density of stygobitic harpacticoids was identified in the Eastern Lessinian basin, which is lithologically more heterogeneous and surrounded by practically non-aquiferous igneous rocks that may limit dispersal. Conversely, the Western Lessinian basin hosted a high density of stygobitic cyclopoid species. This spatial pattern suggests different colonization pathways for the two taxa, with a strong effect of igneous rocks in hampering dispersal of most harpacticoids. Lithological barriers seemingly did not affect non-stygobitic copepods, which were found across the whole area. Altogether, these results emphasize the key role played by the interaction of hydrological features, climate, and lithology in determining different copepod biodiversity patterns in the unsaturated karst.

Measurement(s) morphological trait • ecological trait Technology Type(s) literature extraction • observation Sample Characteristic - Organism Agelenidae • Amaurobiidae • Anapidae • Cybaeidae • Dysderidae • Hahniidae • Leptonetidae • Linyphiidae • Liocranidae • Mysmenidae • Nesticidae • Pholcidae • Pimoidae • Segestriidae • Sicariidae • Sparassidae • Symphytognathidae • Telemidae • Tetragnathidae • Theridiidae Sample Characteristic - Environment caves • subterranean habitats Sample Characteristic - Location Europe

Measurement(s) Newspaper articles on human-spider encounters Technology Type(s) Manual extraction Sample Characteristic - Organism Spiders (Arachnida: Araneae) Sample Characteristic - Environment Online Sample Characteristic - Location Global

Abstract Measuring commonness and rarity is pivotal to ecology and conservation. Zeta diversity, the average number of species shared by multiple sets of assemblages, and Dark diversity, the number of species that could occur in an assemblage but are missing, have been recently proposed to capture two aspects of the commonness‐rarity spectrum. Despite a shared focus on commonness and rarity, thus far, Zeta and Dark diversities have been assessed separately. Here, we review these two frameworks and suggest their integration into a unified paradigm of the “rarity facets of biodiversity.” This can be achieved by partitioning Alpha and Beta diversities into five components (the Zeta, Eta, Theta, Iota, and Kappa rarity facets) defined based on the commonness and rarity of species. Each facet is assessed in traditional and multiassemblage fashions to bridge conceptual differences between Dark diversity and Zeta diversity. We discuss applications of the rarity facets including comparing the taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic diversity of rare and common species, or measuring species' prevalence in different facets as a metric of species rarity. The rarity facets integrate two emergent paradigms in biodiversity science to better understand the ecology of commonness and rarity, an important endeavor in a time of widespread changes in biodiversity across the Earth.

Abstract Caves and other subterranean habitats fulfill the requirements of experimental model systems to address general questions in ecology and evolution. Yet, the harsh working conditions of these environments and the uniqueness of the subterranean organisms have challenged most attempts to pursuit standardized research. Two main obstacles have synergistically hampered previous attempts. First, there is a habitat impediment related to the objective difficulties of exploring subterranean habitats and our inability to access the network of fissures that represents the elective habitat for the so‐called “cave species.” Second, there is a biological impediment illustrated by the rarity of most subterranean species and their low physiological tolerance, often limiting sample size and complicating laboratory experiments. We explore the advantages and disadvantages of four general experimental setups (in situ, quasi in situ, ex situ, and in silico) in the light of habitat and biological impediments. We also discuss the potential of indirect approaches to research. Furthermore, using bibliometric data, we provide a quantitative overview of the model organisms that scientists have exploited in the study of subterranean life. Our over‐arching goal is to promote caves as model systems where one can perform standardized scientific research. This is important not only to achieve an in‐depth understanding of the functioning of subterranean ecosystems but also to fully exploit their long‐discussed potential in addressing general scientific questions with implications beyond the boundaries of this discipline.

Human activities in subterranean environments can affect different ecosystem components, including the resident fauna. Subterranean terrestrial invertebrates are particularly sensitive to environmental change, especially microclimatic variations. For instance, microclimate modifications caused by the visitors may directly affect local fauna in caves opened to the public. However, since numerous factors act synergistically in modulating the distribution and abundance of subterranean species, it remains challenging to differentiate the impact of human intervention from that of other factors. Therefore, evidence of the impact of tourism on cave invertebrate fauna remains scarce. Over a year and with approximately two visits a month, we investigated the effects of the presence of visitors on the subterranean endemic woodlouse Armadillidium lagrecai in the strict natural reserve of Monello Cave (Sicily, Italy). We found that natural microclimatic fluctuations, and not direct human disturbance, were the main factors driving the distribution of A. lagrecai. Specifically, A. lagrecai select for more climatically stable areas of the cave, where the temperature was constantly warm and the relative humidity close to saturation. We also observed a significant temporal effect, with a greater abundance of A. lagrecai in summer and a gradual decrease during the winter months. The number of visitors in the Monello Cave had no effect on the abundance and distribution of A. lagrecai. However, considering the high sensitivity of the species to microclimatic variations, it seems likely that a significant increase in the number of visitors to the cave could indirectly affect this species by altering local microclimate. Constant monitoring of the environmental parameters within the cave is therefore recommended.

Abstract Spiders are able to arouse strong emotional reactions in humans. While spider bites are statistically rare events, our perception is skewed towards the potential harm spiders can cause to humans. Nevertheless, there is still limited understanding of the role of the media in spreading (mis)information about them thereby promoting this distorted perception of risk. We examined the human dimension of spiders through the lens of traditional media, by analysing spider‐related news published online in Italian newspapers between 2010 and 2020 (n = 314). We assessed the accuracy, circulation and sensationalistic content of each article, and assessed how each of these features drove news' share on social media. We observed a recent, exponential increase in the frequency of the news, particularly those focused on medically important spiders—the Mediterranean black widow Latrodectus tredecimguttatus and the Mediterranean recluse Loxosceles rufescens. The news quality was generally poor: 70% contained different types of error, 32% were sensationalistic, and in virtually none was an expert consulted. The risk scenario depicted by the media reports was unnecessarily alarmist, especially with regard to L. rufescens. A conservative estimate would suggest that less than 10% of the bites reported in the media reports analysed here were delivered by the species described in the report. Moreover, two out of three casualties associated with a bite of the Mediterranean recluse were fake news, while the third was unverifiable. Overstated news referring to spider bites was shared significantly more on social media, thus contributing to frame a distorted perception of the risk. This is important given that these negative sentiments may ultimately lead to lowering public tolerance towards spiders and reducing conservation efforts towards them. We discuss open questions and avenues for future research concerning the media coverage of widely feared animals, that will help bridge knowledge gaps regarding the role of traditional and social media in framing our perception of the natural world. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

Whereas scientists interested in subterranean life typically insist that their research is exciting, adventurous, and important to answer general questions, this enthusiasm and potential often fade when the results are translated into scientific publications. This is because cave research is often written by cave scientists for cave scientists; thus, it rarely “leaves the cave”. However, the status quo is changing rapidly. We analysed 21,486 articles focused on subterranean ecosystems published over the last three decades and observed a recent, near-exponential increase in their annual citations and impact factor. Cave research is now more often published in non-specialized journals, thanks to a number of authors who are exploiting subterranean habitats as model systems for addressing important scientific questions. Encouraged by this positive trend, we here propose a few personal ideas for improving the generality of subterranean literature, including tips for framing broadly scoped research and making it accessible to a general audience, even when published in cave-specialized journals. Hopefully, this small contribution will succeed in condensing and broadcasting even further the collective effort taken by the subterranean biology community to bring their research “outside the cave”.

Global inland water biodiversity is under mounting stress facing future scenarios of climate change, biological invasions, pollution, diversion, damming of rivers, and increase of water abstractions. Apart from having isolated effects, all these stressors threats act synergistically and thus pose additional emerging threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services. Native to Northern Europe, the nuisance and potential toxic dinoflagellate Ceratium furcoides (Levander) Langhans 1925 is a silent invader that blooms in freshwater systems; it has one of the most rapid spread rates globally. We propose a framework to determine the worldwide most vulnerable areas for the invasion by C. furcoides shortly (2041–2060) by combining future scenarios of climate change (a proxy for invasiveness) derived from ecological niche models with future dam construction data (a proxy for invasibility). The nine models applied in four future scenarios of greenhouse gas emission from Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 showed a general increase in areas suitable for the invasion success of C. furcoides. High susceptibility overlapped with areas densely occupied by large and medium-size dams and future dam construction projects. Considering that C. furcoides can reproduce from a single cell, produces resistant stages, and has several strategies to cope with local environmental constraints, early detection protocols, and mitigation actions are urgently needed to avoid biodiversity declines related to this invader.

Conservation planning aimed at halting biodiversity loss has seldom focused on groundwater environments due to the lack of suitable management tools and data. Using harpacticoid crustaceans as a test case, we explore the potential of implementing an approach based on Conservation-Relevant Hotspots for practical conservation of groundwater biodiversity. Conservation-Relevant Hotspots are identified by intersecting species richness, endemicity, and taxonomic distinctness with the aim to minimize the total area to protect. We show that, by targeting five Conservation-Relevant Hotspots that cover only 1.9% of the European land surface, one would protect as much as 44% of the harpacticoid crustacean richness, 93% of its endemicity, and 98% of its taxonomic distinctness. About 28% of the area occupied by these hotspots overlaps with protected areas, which calls for an increase in their protection coverage. Our framework proved a useful tool for conservation planning of environments where spatial or socio-economic constraints occur.

Abstract The 15th UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (COP15) will be held in Kunming, China in October 2021. Historically, CBDs and other multilateral treaties have either alluded to or entirely overlooked the subterranean biome. A multilateral effort to robustly examine, monitor, and incorporate the subterranean biome into future conservation targets will enable the CBD to further improve the ecological effectiveness of protected areas by including groundwater resources, subterranean ecosystem services, and the profoundly endemic subsurface biodiversity. To this end, we proffer a conservation roadmap that embodies five conceptual areas: (1) science gaps and data management needs; (2) anthropogenic stressors; (3) socioeconomic analysis and conflict resolution; (4) environmental education; and (5) national policies and multilateral agreements.

Jargon is the specialised vocabulary of any science: it allows the creation of new terms to define concepts and it removes ambiguity from scientific communication. Yet, it may also hinder understanding for a broader audience. Given that the Journal of Limnology has jargon in its title, we here investigate the impact of the term ‘limnology’ on the way limnologists work, publish their research, and attract the interest of other scientists. We do so by comparing scientometric features of papers published from 1965 to 2020 that used the term ‘limnology’ against papers on similar topics but that used the term ‘lake ecology’ or ‘hydrobiology’, and to the marine counterpart of papers that used the term ‘oceanography’. We found that papers using the term limnology score worse than those of the other topics in terms of both publication output and scientific impact. Limnologists may need to use other terms in addition to ‘limnology’ to reach a broader scientific audience.

Ecological systems are the quintessential complex systems, involving numerous high-order interactions and non-linear relationships. The most used statistical modeling techniques can hardly accommodate the complexity of ecological patterns and processes. Finding hidden relationships in complex data is now possible using massive computational power, particularly by means of artificial intelligence and machine learning methods. Here we explored the potential of symbolic regression (SR), commonly used in other areas, in the field of ecology. Symbolic regression searches for both the formal structure of equations and the fitting parameters simultaneously, hence providing the required flexibility to characterize complex ecological systems. Although the method here presented is automated, it is part of a collaborative human–machine effort and we demonstrate ways to do it. First, we test the robustness of SR to extreme levels of noise when searching for the species-area relationship. Second, we demonstrate how SR can model species richness and spatial distributions. Third, we illustrate how SR can be used to find general models in ecology, namely new formulas for species richness estimators and the general dynamic model of oceanic island biogeography. We propose that evolving free-form equations purely from data, often without prior human inference or hypotheses, may represent a very powerful tool for ecologists and biogeographers to become aware of hidden relationships and suggest general theoretical models and principles.

The Internet and social media have profoundly changed the way the public receives and transmits news. The ability of the web to quickly disperse information both geographically and temporally allows social media to reach a much wider audience compared to traditional mass media. A powerful role is played by sharing, as millions of people routinely share news on social media platforms, influencing each other by transmitting their mood and feelings to others through emotional contagion. Thus, social media has become crucial in driving public perception and opinion. Humans have an instinctive fear of large carnivores, but such a negative attitude may be amplified by news media presentations and their diffusion on social media. Here, we investigated how reports of predator attacks on humans published in online newspapers spread on social media. By means of multi-model inference, we explored the contribution of four factors in driving the number of total shares (NTS) of news reports on social media: the graphic/sensationalistic content, the presence of images, the species, as well as the newspaper coverage. According to our results, the information delivered by social media is highly biased toward a graphic/sensationalistic view of predators. Thus, such negative coverage might lead to an unjustified and amplified fear in the public with consequent lower tolerance toward predators and decrease in the support for conservation plans. However, because social media represents a powerful communication tool, its role might be reversed to positive if used appropriately. Thus, constant engagement of scientists on social media would be needed to both disseminate more accurate information on large carnivores and stem the tide of misinformation before its widespread diffusion, a crucial step for effective predator conservation.

Being characterized by the absence of light and a reduced environmental cyclicity, the subterranean domain is generally regarded as temporally stable. Yet, in the proximity of cave entrances (twilight zones), patterns of sunlight and darkness can be detected within the 24-hour day–night cycle. In parallel, changes in the abiotic and biotic conditions are expected; however, these patterns have been rarely explored in animal communities dwelling in the twilight zone. We performed a biological investigation in a small abandoned mine in the Western Alps, monitoring it once per season, both during the day and at night. At each survey, we collected data on the spatial distribution of the resident species, their activity patterns, and the main microclimatic parameters. We observed significant daily variations in the environmental conditions during winter and spring, namely higher temperature, relative humidity and availability of trophic resources at night. In conjunction with these disparate nocturnal conditions, the abundance of troglophile species was also higher, as well as the activity patterns of one of the most frequent species inhabiting the entrance area – the orb-weaver spider Meta menardi. We further documented temporal changes in the composition of the parietal community, due to species using the mine as a diurnal, nocturnal or overwintering shelter. Overall, our results suggest that the communities of the twilight zone are not temporally stable and we highlight the importance of taking into account not only their seasonal, but also their daily variations.

We studied the ecological continuum between caves and the associated network of fissures – Milieu Souterrain Superficiel (MSS) – in an hypogean site in the Graian Alps, Italy. Over one year, we surveyed the faunal assemblages by means of pitfall traps placed in the caves and specific subterranean sampling devices (SSD) buried in the MSS. We used generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs) and generalized additive mixed models (GAMMs) to compare the spatial and temporal dynamics of the subterranean invertebrates inhabiting the two environments. As expected, arthropod communities occurring near the surface were characterized by minor level of subterranean adaptations, and conversely, subterranean species were more abundant and diversified at higher depths, both in the caves and in the MSS. Diversity and abundance of external elements in the superficial layers were found to be highly seasonal dependent, with minor values in winter compared to the other seasons. We provided information about the faunal assemblages dwelling in the two hypogean compartments, and we characterized the microclimatic conditions therein. We discussed the existence of an ecological gradient of specialization extending from the surface to the deep hypogean layers, which can be interpreted in light of the microclimatic changes occurring at increasing depths and the parallel decrease in available organic matter.

The threshold zones between the epigean and hypogean environments are generally characterized by less harsh ecological conditions than deep subterranean habitats, and usually support a greater abundance of organisms. Transitional habitats such as these should be more easily colonised by alien species, especially by those possessing exaptations suitable for subterranean life. In spite of this, few studies have been conducted to unravel the ecological dynamics between native and alien species in the habitats situated at the epigean/hypogean interface. A unique test case is offered by cave-dwelling Meta orb-weaver spiders in Great Britain (Araneae: Tetragnathidae). One species, M. menardi, is a widespread native, whilst M. bourneti is believed to be a recently introduced (1940s) species, that has since become established in the south-eastern part of the country. Species distribution models (SDM) were used to predict current and future habitat suitability for the two species, generating hypotheses regarding their distribution in different global warming scenarios. Model projections indicate that the two species respond to similar environmental variables. Seasonal temperature variations at the surface and elevation are the main factors explaining the distribution of both species, whereas annual precipitation, daily temperature range and limestone distribution contributed little to the model performance. It is predicted that due to climate change, there will be poleward shifts in the ranges of both species. However, the native species M. menardi will primarily be able to exploit suitable areas which will appear northward to their current distribution, and M. bourneti will colonise empty niches left available by its congeneric. The analytical framework employed in this paper may be easily adapted to other subterranean systems and species, stimulating future studies focusing on the distribution of native and alien species in extreme environments.

Pimoa delphinica Mammola, Hormiga & Isaia, 2016 is a troglophile araneoid spider endemic of the high Varaita valley (Western Alps, Province of Cuneo, NW Italy). In spite of relatively intense field research and examination of museum collections, the species is restricted to ten localities, thus showing a reduced extent of occurrence (EOO; 26 km2) and area of occupancy (AOO; 12 km2). Although the habitat and the subpopulations of P. delphinica are not currently threatened, the species is potentially exposed due to its extremely narrow geographic distribution range, subdivision in subpopulations and low dispersal capacity.

The diving bell spider Argyroneta aquatica is the only known spider to conduct a wholly aquatic life. For this reason, it has been the object of an array of studies concerning different aspects of its peculiar biology such as reproductive behavior and sexual dimorphism, physiology, genetic and silk. On the other hand, besides some empirical observations, the autoecology of this spider is widely understudied. We conducted an ecological study in a resurgence located in the Po Plain (Northern Italy, Province of Vercelli) hosting a relatively rich population of Argyroneta aquatica, aiming at identifying the ecological factors driving its presence at the micro-habitat level. By means of a specific sampling methodology, we acquired distributional data of the spiders in the study area and monitored physical-chemical and habitat structure parameters at each plot. We analyzed the data through Bernoulli Generalized Linear Models (GLM). Results pointed out a significant positive effect of the presence of aquatic vegetation in the plot. In addition, the presence of A. aquatica was significantly associated with areas of the resurgence characterized at the same time by high prey availability and low density of predators. Considering the ecological importance and rarity of this species, we update and revise the data on the distribution of A. aquatica in Italy.

We studied the ecology, distribution, and phylogeography of Tephroseris balbisiana, a rare plant whose range is centered to the South-Western Alps. Our aim was to assess the extent of intraspecific variability within the nominal species and the conservation status of isolated populations. We studied genetic diversity across the whole species range. We analyzed leaf traits, which are distinctive morphological characters within the Tephroseris genus. A clear pattern of genetic variation was found among populations of T. balbisiana, which clustered according to their geographic position. On the contrary, there was a strong overlap in the morphological space of individuals across the species’ range, with few peripheral populations diverging in their leaf morphology. Studying habitat suitability by means of species distribution models, we observed that T. balbisiana range is primarily explained by solar radiation and precipitation seasonality. Environmental requirements could explain the genetic and morphological uniformity of T. balbisiana in its core distribution area and justify genetic, morphological, and ecological divergences found among the isolated populations of the Apennines. Our findings emphasize the need to account for the whole diversity of a species, comprising peripheral populations, in order to better estimate its status and to prioritize areas for its conservation.

Invasive alien species are a major threat to biodiversity. Thus, it is fundamental to implement control strategies at the early stages of invasions. In the framework of the Italian-Swiss Alien Invasive Species in Lake Maggiore cooperative programme, we performed an extensive study on the occurrence and ecology of alien crayfish, one of the most significant invaders of freshwater habitats. From April 2017 to July 2018, we inspected seventy-five sites along the coastline to verify crayfish occurrence. We recorded, for the first time, the signal crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus. Additionally, we found few individuals and remains of the red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii, and confirmed the presence of a consistent population of the spinycheek crayfish Orconectes limosus. Given the high number of O. limosus’ individuals found, it was possible to perform in-depth biometric and ecological analyses for this abundant species only. We observed no significant differences of biometric measures between males and females of O. limosus. We explore its habitat preferences with a generalized linear model, detecting a significant relationship between mean annual temperatures and the presence of shelters of this species. These results, together, have direct implications for planning rapid management response actions on alien crayfish in large and deep lakes.

Hypogean beetles generally live in stable environments, characterized by constant temperature and high relative humidity. Changes in the underground microclimatic conditions generally induce local migrations of the beetles through the hypogean environment in search of suitable microhabitats. We studied the seasonal dynamics and the micro-climatic preference of two Alpine endemic hypogean beetles - Sphodropsis ghilianii (Coleoptera, Carabidae) and Dellabeffaella roccae (Coleoptera, Cholevidae) - in the hypogean complex of Pugnetto (Graian Alps, Italy). We surveyed the two species for one year, using baited pitfall traps and measuring temperature and humidity along the two main caves. We used logistic regression mixed models (GLMMs) to relate the presence of the two species to several variables, namely microclimate (seasonality, temperature, and humidity), subjacency and cave length. In addition, we tested the attractive power of the bait on the two species. The thermic optimum for S. ghilianii was found to be around 7°C, with an increasing probability of finding the species in the vicinity of the cave entrance during summer, autumn and spring. The species migrates inside the cave in winter, in response to the drop in the mean daily temperature and in the relative humidity occurring in the outer parts of the cave. On the contrary, D. roccae showed a significant preference for the deeper sections of the cave, characterized by an almost constant temperature of 9°C in air saturated with water vapour. Males and females individuals of both species were found to be equally affected by the environmental variables included in the analysis. We also provided information on the life history of the two species and methodological insights about the use of the bait in the traps

Organismal biology has been steadily losing fashion in both formal education and scientific research. Simultaneous with this is an observable decrease in the connection between humans, their environment, and the organisms with which they share the planet. Nonetheless, we propose that organismal biology can facilitate scientific observation, discovery, research, and engagement, especially when the organisms of focus are ubiquitous and charismatic animals such as spiders. Despite being often feared, spiders are mysterious and intriguing, offering a useful foundation for the effective teaching and learning of scientific concepts and processes. In order to provide an entryway for teachers and students—as well as scientists themselves—into the biology of spiders, we compiled a list of 99 record breaking achievements by spiders (the “Spider World Records”). We chose a world-record style format, as this is known to be an effective way to intrigue readers of all ages. We highlighted, for example, the largest and smallest spiders, the largest prey eaten, the fastest runners, the highest fliers, the species with the longest sperm, the most venomous species, and many more. We hope that our compilation will inspire science educators to embrace the biology of spiders as a resource that engages students in science learning. By making these achievements accessible to non-arachnologists and arachnologists alike, we suggest that they could be used: (i) by educators to draw in students for science education, (ii) to highlight gaps in current organismal knowledge, and (iii) to suggest novel avenues for future research efforts. Our contribution is not meant to be comprehensive, but aims to raise public awareness on spiders, while also providing an initial database of their record breaking achievements.

Anthropogenic alterations in show caves are well documented in scientific literature. One of the main sources of perturbation derives from visitors, acting as carriers of propagules and organic matter in the cave ecosystems. Such perturbation generally results in a significant alteration of the natural subterranean microbiota. In this study, we characterize the mycobiota of the superficial alluvial sediment (0–5 cm) of the Bossea show cave (NW-Italy) over two sampling seasons, aiming to investigate whether anthropogenic rather than natural factors contribute to the colonization and proliferation of alien mycobiota in the cave environment. We placed eighteen sampling plots at different distances from the touristic pathway that crosses the cave. The distance from the touristic pathway was used as proxy to sort the sampling plots in three groups according the degree of anthropogenic disturbance (high: 0–2 m; intermediate 2–40 m; low: >100 m). Moreover, in order to elucidate the potential effect of other factors, we introduced in our analysis the distance from the subterranean river and the distance from the cave entrance. In each plot, we collected two samples of alluvial sediment, in winter and summer. Fungi were isolated from each sample and identified by means of an integrated morphological approach. We observed a rich and diversified fungal community – 63 taxa of Zygomycota and Ascomycota plus several unidentified yeasts – consisting of both native and alien species. Regression analysis points out a decrease of the abundance and the diversity of viable propagules at increasing distances from the touristic pathway rather than the cave entrance or the subterranean river. Accordingly, the exogenous organic materials passively conveyed by tourists, possibly explains the higher proliferation of alien species in the proximity of the touristic pathway. There was also a seasonal variation in the diversity and abundance of propagules, which we interpreted in light of the peculiar microclimate of the cave. In a second step, we used Indicator Species Analysis to identify the most representative species of the different levels of anthropogenic disturbance. In particular, Aspergillus spelunceus was found to be indicator of low disturbance, whereas Mucor corticola and A. asperescens were found to be indicators of intermediate and high disturbance, respectively. Key words: anthropic disturbance, alluvial sediment, alien species, airborne fungi, environmental impact.

Meta menardi and M. bourneti are two species of spiders inhabiting caves and other subterranean habitats. The occurrence of both species within the same cave has never been proved convincingly and several authors hypothesized a complete niche differentiation mainly based on microclimatic conditions.In order to study the apparent niche differentiation of the two species, we studied several populations of M. menardi and M. bourneti occurring in six caves in the Western Italian Alps (NW Italy). A series of squared plots were monitored monthly from March 2012 to February 2013. At each survey, we counted individuals and we collected the main environmental variables at each plot, namely distance from cave entrance, structural typology (wall, floor or ceiling), light intensity, wind speed and counts of potential prey. Moreover, temperature and relative humidity were continuously logged in each cave. We run several statistical models (GLMMs) in order to relate the counts of individuals to the environmental parameters. The distance from the cave entrance, structural typology and prey availability resulted most important factors driving the abundance of both species within the cave. On the other hand, despite life cycles appeared very similar, the two species seems to exhibit different tolerance to the microclimatic variations within the cave, which emerged as the main factors determining the differentiation of their niche. At least in our study area, M. bourneti tolerates broad microclimatic fluctuations and is potentially able to colonize a wide variety of caves. On the other hand, when the climatic conditions in a cave are suitable for M. menardi (narrow ranges of relatively low temperature and high humidity), M. bourneti is excluded.

Caves are excellent model systems to study the effects of abiotic factors on species distributions due to their selective conditions. Different ecological factors have been shown to affect species distribution depending on the scale of analysis, whether regional or local. The interplay between local and regional factors in explaining the spatial distribution of cave-dwelling organisms is poorly understood. Using the troglophilic subterranean spider Artema nephilit (Araneae: Pholcidae) as a model organism, we investigated whether similar environmental predictors drive the species distribution at these two spatial scales. At the local scale, we monitored the abundance of the spiders and measured relevant environmental features in 33 caves along the Jordan Rift Valley. We then extended the analysis to a regional scale, investigating the drivers of the distribution using species distribution models. We found that similar ecological factors determined the distribution at both local and regional scales for A. nephilit. At a local scale, the species was found to preferentially occupy the outermost, illuminated, and warmer sectors of caves. Similarly, mean annual temperature, annual temperature range, and solar radiation were the most important drivers of its regional distribution. By investigating these two spatial scales simultaneously, we showed that it was possible to achieve an in-depth understanding of the environmental conditions that governs subterranean species distribution.

We designed a comparative study to unravel the phylogeography of two Alpine endemic spiders characterized by a different degree of adaptation to subterranean life: Troglohyphantes vignai (Araneae, Linyphiidae) and Pimoa rupicola (Araneae, Pimoidae), the latter showing minor adaptation to hypogean life. We sampled populations of the model species in caves and other subterranean habitats across their known geographical range in the Western Alps. By combining phylogeographic inferences and Ecological Niche Modeling techniques, we inferred the biogeographic scenario that led to the present day population structure of the two species. According to our divergent time estimates and relative uncertainties, the isolation of T. vignai and P. rupicola from their northern sister groups was tracked back to Middle–Late Miocene. Furthermore, the fingerprint left by Pleistocene glaciations on the population structure revealed by the genetic data, led to the hypothesis that a progressive adaptation to subterranean habitats occurred in T. vignai, followed by strong population isolation. On the other hand, P. rupicola underwent a remarkable genetic bottleneck during the Pleistocene glaciations, that shaped its present population structure. It seems likely that such shallow population structure is both the result of the minor degree of specialization to hypogean life and the higher dispersal ability characterizing this species. The simultaneous study of overlapping spider species showing different levels of adaptation to hypogean life, disclosed a new way to clarify patterns of biological diversification and to understand the effects of past climatic shift on the subterranean biodiversity.

Vesubia jugorum (Simon, 1881) (Araneae: Lycosidae) is a large-sized wolf spider that occurs in alpine rocky areas above 2,000 m altitude. The species is stenoendemic, with a limited number of populations documented in the literature from the Maritime Alps (Italy, France). Due to the climate change, the current observed extent of occurrence (EEO 4,412 km2) and the area of occupancy (AOO 835 km2) are declining.