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Participants played the role of managers in a simulated leadership task that required them to deliver instructions to a subordinate (confederate). The subordinate obeyed or disobeyed the manager's orders. Males reported lower feelings of belongingness and control in response to disobedience, which in turn predicted higher levels of negative affect. Males high (compared to low) in the need for power also reported less positive affect and more anger following disobedience. We suggest that workplace disobedience reflects lack of respect for one's authority, and that for males (but not females) this signals the ineffectiveness of direct influence strategies and a reduced potential for social acceptance. Males with strong needs for power expect deference and hence react most adversely to being disobeyed. We thank Chak Wong and Chun Leung for serving as confederates in this study. This research was supported by a National Science Foundation collaborative grant (#0744972) awarded to Martin Bourgeois and Kristin ...

Researchers examining guilt using the Test of Self-Conscious Affect (TOSCA) have suggested that guilt is an adaptive emotion that drives people to take reparative actions such as confessing or apologizing for one’s transgressions. These researchers have found guilt to be inversely related to negative emotions such as anger, hostility, and resentment. Other researchers claim that the TOSCA measure does not capture the complexity of the guilt construct and that it does not address some of the maladaptive aspects of guilt. O’Connor and her colleagues developed a more encompassing measure of guilt, the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire-67 (IGQ-67). They argue that guilt can be linked to irrational beliefs, may be maladaptive, and can lead to emotional distress. The present study examined the relationship between the two conceptualizations of guilt to psychological outcomes. The results indicated that TOSCA guilt was negatively related to loneliness and this relationship was mediated by self-disclosure. IGQ-67 guilt was positively related to loneliness and alienation; these relationships were mediated by emotional ambivalence. The findings provide researchers with a clearer understanding of the guilt construct and its emotional and behavioral correlates.

Although a great deal of research has investigated the goals served by being influenced by others, virtually none has examined the goals served by having influence over others. The purpose of this paper is to draw attention to this understudied research area. Drawing on related research and theory, we suggest that having influence over others serves five needs and/or goals—for accuracy, belongingness, self‐esteem, control, and meaningful existence. Different types of social influence are compared and contrasted in the context of relevant dimensions of influence. We also make a number of suggestions for research to test this model.