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Background/Objective: To investigate socioeconomic, gestational and early life exposures as potential determinants of total height, leg and trunk length. Subjects/Methods: Male subjects from the 1982 Pelotas Birth Cohort Study were examined in 1986 at home, and in 2000 when registering at the local army base. The follow-up rate was 79%. Standing and sitting heights were measured on both occasions. Leg length was calculated as the difference between standing and sitting heights. Outcome measures were height, leg and trunk length at 4 and 18 years and growth in this period. Complete data were obtained for 2012 participants, representing 71 % of all eligible male subjects. Results: Mean (s.d.) height, trunk length and leg length at 18 years were 173.4 (6.8), 96.0 (3.5) and 77.5 cm (4.5), respectively. The mean (s.d.) change in height from 1986 to 2000 was 75.4cm (5.2) and for leg and trunk length 35.4 (3.9) and 40.0 cm (2.9), respectively. Of 11 independent variables analyzed, only maternal height and birthweight were associated with all three variables of growth. Gestational age showed no associations with growth or attained size. Conclusions: Early growth plays a pivotal role in determining attained height and its components. Both biological and socioeconomic variables strongly influence determinants of height, though socioeconomic factors appear to be more important in early growth. Leg and trunk length contribute almost equally to differences in overall height, regardless of the independent variable influencing the difference. Public health strategies designed to improve chronic disease profiles should focus on the early growth period. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602949; published online 27 February 2008 Keywords: body height; leg length; trunk length; cohort studies; socioeconomic factors; birth weight, Introduction Adult height is influenced by a child's nutrition and health throughout his or her growing years. Although final height is limited by a child's genotype, environmental influences also affect [...]

Researchers modeling historical heights have typically relied on the restrictive assumption of a normal distribution, only the mean of which is affected by age, income, nutrition, disease, and similar influences. To avoid these restrictive assumptions, we develop a new semiparametric approach in which covariates are allowed to affect the entire distribution without imposing any parametric shape. We apply our method to a new database of height distributions for Italian provinces, drawn from conscription records, of unprecedented length and geographical disaggregation. Our method allows us to standardize distributions to a single age and calculate moments of the distribution that are comparable through time. Our method also allows us to generate counterfactual distributions for a range of ages, from which we derive age-height profiles. These profiles reveal how the adolescent growth spurt (AGS) distorts the distribution of stature, and they document the earlier and earlier onset of the AGS as living conditions improved over the second half of the nineteenth century. Our new estimates of provincial mean height also reveal a previously unnoticed 'regime switch' from regional convergence to divergence in this period.

Objectives. Better childhood conditions, inferred from height and specifically leg length, are usually protective against ischemic heart disease and its risk factors in Western countries. In other geo-ethnic populations, height is less clearly protective, casting doubt on there being a biological etiology. To clarify the role of childhood conditions, we examined the associations of height and its components with cardiovascular risk among older Chinese people. Methods. We used multivariable regression to examine the associations of height and its components with blood pressure, lipid profile, and diabetes in 10413 older Chinese adults (mean age = 64.6 years). Results. After we adjusted for age, gender, socioeconomic status, and lifestyle habits, greater sitting height was associated with diabetes and dyslipidemia. Longer legs were associated with lower pulse pressure and lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Conclusions. We provide indirect anthropometric evidence for the role of pre-pubertal and pubertal exposures on cardiovascular risk. Pubertal exposures are stronger than are prepubertal exposures but may be influenced by osteoporotic decline in old age. Further research should establish whether the observed relations are ethnically specific or relate to the stage or trajectory of socioeconomic development. (Am J Public Health. 2007;97:1834-1841. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2006.088096)

Available data on the long-term consequences of preschool stunting are scarce and conflicting. The objective of this study was to assess the amount of catch-up growth from preschool stunting and the effect of migration (change in environment) during adolescence. A cohort study from preschool age (1-5 y) to adulthood (18-23 y) was conducted among 2874 subjects born in a rural area of Senegal. The subjects were divided into 3 groups of preschool stunting: none, mild, and marked, with height-for-age Z-scores of >-1, -2 to -1, and

The 'anatomical' method of Fully ([1956] Ann. Legale Med. 35:266-273) for reconstructing stature, involving the addition of skeletal elements from the calcaneus to the skull, has been increasingly used in anthropological and forensic contexts, but has undergone little systematic testing on samples other than the original sample used to develop the technique. The original description by Fully of the method also does not provide completely explicit directions for taking all of the necessary measurements. This study tested the accuracy and applicability of his method, and clarified measurement procedures. The study sample consisted of 119 adult black and white males and females of known cadaveric statures from the Terry Collection. Cadaveric statures were adjusted to living statures, following the recommendations of Trotter and Gleser ([1952] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 10:469-514). We obtained the best results using maximum vertebral body heights (anterior to the pedicles) and measurement of the articulated talus and calcaneus height in anatomical position. Statures derived using the original Fully technique are strongly correlated with living statures in our sample (r = 0.96), but underestimate living stature by an average of about 2.4 cm. Anatomical considerations also suggest that the correction factors applied by Fully to convert summed skeletal height to living stature are too small. New formulae are derived to calculate living stature from skeletal height. There is no effect of sex or ancestry on stature prediction. Resulting stature estimates are accurate to within 4.5 cm in 95% of the individuals in our sample, with no directional bias. KEY WORDS stature estimation; anatomical method; living stature; skeletal height

Introduction: Height loss has been shown to be an indicator of incident vertebral fractures. However, the relationship between height loss and bone mineral density (BMD) in different skeletal regions, as well as the power of human memory in estimation of height loss across the life span, has not yet been established. Given that the variation in BMD between populations is substantially less than the variation in fracture risk, we studied the relationship between height loss based on patient's recalls and BMD in Iranian men and women of all ages. Methods: Randomized clustered sampling from all regions of Tehran was performed to recruit the study population. Participants were asked about their maximum recalled previously measured height, if they were confident. In the 457 participants included, the difference between the participants' maximum recalled and current measured height was calculated. Result: L1-L4 lumbar BMD, femoral neck BMD, and young adjusted T-scores were significantly lower in the group of participants with estimated height reduction of greater than 5 cm. In simple linear regression analysis, height loss was a significant predictor of femoral neck T-score (standardized beta coefficient =-0.15; p0.003) and L1-L4 lumbar T-score (beta =-0.08; p0.048). After adjustment for age, gender, and weight, height loss remained a significant predictor for femoral neck T-score (beta =-0.078; p0 .043). In multivariate models for lumbar T-score, height loss was an independent predictor only in participants equal to or younger than 50 years of age (beta =-0.144; p0.033). Conclusion: Higher estimated height loss according to patients' recalls was an indicator of lower BMD in our sample. Especially in the femoral neck region, this factor might be considered as a substitute case-finding tool for low BMD. Considering relatively young nature of our study group and biological differences between populations, our findings need to be validated in future prospective studies. Keywords Bone mineral density * Height loss * Iran * Osteoporosis

A reduction in stature (shrinkage) has been used as a measure of the load on the spine. Musculoskeletal effects of ageing may influence individual responses to compressive loading on the spine and the resultant loss in stature. The aim was to apply the technique of precision stadiometry for assessment of spinal shrinkage in a comparison of responses of two different age groups performing a regimen of circuit weight training. In all, 20 subjects (10 aged 18-25 and 10 aged 47-60 years) participated in the study. Each performed two sets of a 12-station circuit of exercises, the loading being established relative to individual capabilities. Recovery procedures using a semi-supine posture intervened between the two sets and again post-exercise; altogether seven measures of change in stature were obtained using precision stadiometry. The two groups showed a similar pattern of spinal shrinkage, losses in stature being greater for the first set compared to the later set of exercises. Subjects gained height whilst in the formal recovery posture, but responses were inconsistent during warm-up, cool-down and active recovery. Irrespective of age, the spine was less responsive to loading as the duration of activity was increased. It was concluded that provided loading is related to individual capability, healthy older operators are not necessarily compromised by their age in activities that include handling and lifting weights. Keywords: Exercise; Manual handling; Stature; Weight training

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of biological and social background on height of adolescent girls at age 19 y in the city of Pelotas, Southern Brazil. In 2001, a sample of the urban census tracts was visited and adolescent girls who were part of the Pelotas 1982 Birth Cohort Study were located. Standardized questionnaires were administered to the adolescents and their mothers. Height was measured using locally manufactured stadiometers; standardized protocols were employed. The information obtained in 2001 was combined with data collected in earlier phases of the study. The follow-up rate was 69% and 473 girls were studied in 2001. Multiple linear regressions were used to analyze the determinants of height. The height of the 19-y-old adolescents was 161.2 [+ or -] 6.3 cm. The significant determinants of height were family income, maternal pregestational weight, maternal height, smoking during pregnancy, birth weight, height gain, and age at menarche. Birth weight was a more important predictor than weight gain during infancy or height gain between the ages of 2 and 4 y. Each 100 g in birth weight was associated with an increase of ~0.2 cm in the adolescent's height (P = 0.001). The current findings reinforce the importance of early life factors in the determination of adult height. J. Nutr. 136: 473-478, 2006. KEY WORDS: * height * adolescence * cohort study

Abstract--We assayed allelic variation at 19 nuclear-encoded microsatellites among 1622 Gulf red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) sampled from the 1995 and 1997 cohorts at each of three offshore localities in the [...]

Treatment with synthetic oestrogens to reduce adult height has been available for tall girls since the 1950s. Treatment aims to reduce psychosocial problems associated with tall stature that might occur in adolescence or adulthood, but little is known about the long-term outcomes. This retrospective cohort study identified 1248 eligible women from the medical records of Australian paediatricians who assessed or treated tall girls between 1959 and 1993, and 184 women from self-referrals. They included girls who received oestrogen treatment (diethylstilbestrol or ethinyl estradiol) in adolescence (treated group) and those who had been assessed but did not receive treatment (untreated group). A total of 1243 (86.8%) women were traced and invited to participate in the study, and 67.9% of these women (396 treated and 448 untreated) agreed. This paper reports on women's satisfaction with the decision that was made to have treatment to reduce their adult height. In a postal questionnaire women were asked to comment on a range of issues including how they felt about their current height, the assessment and treatment procedures, and the decision whether or not to have treatment. While untreated women were almost unanimously glad they were not treated (99.1%), no matter how tall they became, 42.1% of the treated women expressed dissatisfaction with the decision that was made. There was no clear association between satisfaction with treatment and the women's final height. However, dissatisfaction was related to: (a) whether or not the girls had an active say in the decision-making; (b) to negative experiences of the assessment or treatment procedures; (c) to side effects experienced during the treatment period; and (d) to later side effects women believed were associated with the treatment. The study finds that qualitative analysis of comments made by treated women helps to explain their dissatisfaction with the decision to have treatment. Keywords: Tall girls; Height; Oestrogen; Treatment satisfaction; Australia

Height data were collected from a set of Bertillon records housed at the Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society. The 1,021 individuals represent a cross-section of American society in the nineteenth century. They include males and females of all socioeconomic levels (determined by occupation), native and foreign-born, who had come to western New York from all areas of the United States. A brief description of the Bertillon method is presented, followed by a description of the sample. While not statistically significant (P < 0.05), the results of male height data analysis suggest that military records of height for this time period used by previous researchers are not fully representative of the United States population.

In the Whitehall Study, which followed 17 139 male civil servants over 33 years, the association between tall stature and coronary heart disease (CHD) mortality differed between employment grades. In men without CHD at study entry, the hazard ratio per 15-cm increase in height was 0.77 (95% confidence interval [Cl] = 0.69, 0.85; P < 0.001) for the highest grades, but 0.84 (95% Cl = 0.69, 1.03; P = .10) for middle and 0.95 (95% Cl = 0.75, 1.20; P = .65) for low grades, suggesting that childhood and adult social conditions may interact in their influence on coronary risk.

This study examines patterns of growth and nutritional status of indigenous Tsimane' children under 9 years of age (n = 199 boys and 210 girls), based on a cross-sectional sample from 58 villages from the Beni Deparment of lowland Bolivia. Compared with US children, Tsimane' children are quite short, with linear growth tracking at or below the US 5th centile in both sexes. The prevalence of low height-for-age ('stunting;' HA Z-scores [less than or equal to] -2) is 52% in boys and 43% in girls. In contrast, weight-for-height in Tsimane' children approximates the US median, with the prevalence of low weight-for-height ('wasting'; WH Z-scores [less than or equal to] -2) being only 4% and 6% in boys and girls, respectively. Tsimane' boys and girls are leaner than their US peers, but their levels of body fatness are not so low as to indicate severe energy stress. Arm muscularity of Tsimane' children is similar to that of their US age peers, and this suggests that they are not experiencing acute protein malnutrition. Variation in measures of nutritional status of Tsimane' children is modestly correlated with village-level differences. Degree of isolation, as measured by distance to urban centers or to primary forest, was not a strong predictor of children's anthropometric status. Rather, in both boys and girls, nutritional status was most strongly associated with number of teachers in the village, a measure of access to education. Comparative analyses indicate that high levels of statural growth stunting are common among indigenous populations throughout lowland South America. This problem appears to be largely attributable to poor dietary quality (diets low in key micronutrients) and high disease loads. Further research is needed to identify the specific causes and potential interventions for the high rates of childhood growth stunting in this region. KEY WORDS anthropometry; stature; weight; skinfolds; Amazonia; diet quality

Stature (height) is an important factor in establishing the identity of a person in the living as well as in the skeletonized state. When stature is estimated from the bones of the limbs, regression equations, which estimate the ratios of the lengths of bones to the height of the individual, are generated. The majority of bones that were used previously were the long bones. The calcaneus was used for estimating stature only in American whites and blacks (Holland [1995] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 96:315-320). The regression equations that he generated were found to be useful for stature estimation in these population groups. Since the calcaneus has not been used for the same purpose in South Africa, the aim of this study was to derive regression equations that will allow this bone to be used for stature estimation in South African blacks. In total, 116 complete skeletons (60 males and 56 females) were selected from the Raymond A. Dart Collection of Human Skeletons, School of Anatomical Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand (Johannesburg, South Africa). The skeletal heights of these sets of skeletons were calculated using the anatomical method of Fully ([1956] Ann. Med. Leg. 35:266-273). Nine parameters of the calcaneus were measured and matched against skeletal heights, using univariate and multivariate regression methods. Regression equations were obtained for estimation of the stature of the South African black population from the calcaneus. The standard error of estimate that was obtained with univariate regression analysis was higher than the corresponding values using multivariate regression analysis. In both cases, the standard errors of estimate compared well with the values obtained for fragmentary long bones by previous authors. KEY WORDS Raymond Dart Collection; calcaneus; stature estimation; forensic anthropology

Explanations of historical trends in both mortality and human height differ over the relative contributions of better nutrition and reduced exposure to disease. This paper explores theoretical models in which interactions between diet and disease determine both mortality and height. One model assumes that adult height is directly related to frailty, the relative risk of dying. The second model links frailty to differences between attained and potential height. Diet plays a small role in the transition to low mortality in the first model. The second model assigns a large role to diet in historical mortality trends, but implies that mortality will be unrelated to height in the future. Keywords: mortality decline; body height; nutrition; historical demography [Submitted May 2001: Final version accepted June 2004]

Long bone length is one of the best-known indicators of human stature. Although the long bone length/height ratio differs in tall and short individuals, no detailed study has investigated whether specific formulae should be used to calculate height in different stature groups. This study proposes a new height estimation method. Body height and tibia length were measured in 121 male subjects aged 18.0-34.3 years. Three subgroups were established according to body height (short, medium, or tall), using the 15th and 85th percentiles as cutoff levels. The general formula and a group-specific regression formula were used to estimate height in each subgroup. A control group with the same properties as the study group was analyzed in the same manner. Particularly with 'short' and 'tall' subjects, the difference between true height and the height predicted by the group-specific formulae was smaller than the difference observed when the general formula was used. These discrepancies were statistically significant. When estimating height based on tibia length, the individual's general stature category should be taken into consideration, and group-specific formulae should be used for short and tall subjects. KEY WORDS tibia length; stature estimation; body proportions; forensic anthropology

I examine racial differences in child stunting in mid-1990s South Africa and Brazil, two multiracial societies with different histories of legal support for racial discrimination. Using data from nationally representative household samples linked to community-level measures, the analysis shows that racial inequality in the distribution of socioeconomic resources across households and communities explains much of the racial difference in stunting in both countries. Even after these factors are controlled, however, the results indicate that in South Africa, nonwhite children are still at greater risk of growth faltering than are white children. The nature of socioeconomic and racial differences in children's growth is examined, and major determinants are discussed. These findings suggest that although state-sanctioned racism may help to explain the greater racial inequality in stunting in South Africa than in Brazil, the eradication of a disadvantage for nonwhites will depend on changes in the same fundamental socioeconomic inequalities that characterize both nations.

The combined distribution of heights of men and women has become the canonical illustration of bimodality when teaching introductory statistics. But is this example appropriate? This article investigates the conditions under which a mixture of two normal distributions is bimodal. A simple justification is presented that a mixture of equally weighted normal distributions with common standard deviation [sigma] is bimodal if and only if the difference between the means of the distributions is greater than 2[sigma]. More generally, a mixture of two normal distributions with similar variability cannot be bimodal unless their means differ by more than approximately the sum of their standard deviations. Examination of national survey data on young adults shows that the separation between the distributions of men's and women's heights is not wide enough to produce bimodality. We suggest reasons why histograms of height nevertheless often appear bimodal. KEY WORDS: Bimodal distribution; Living histogram; Normal distribution., 1. THE DISTRIBUTION OF HUMAN HEIGHT Brian Joiner's (1975) living histogram (Figure 1) of his students at Penn State grouped by height inspired the standard classroom example of bimodality resulting [...]

This article provides research on indices for assessing nutritional status by using height measurements, focusing on elderly Mexicans and Mexican Americans. The authors find that the model developed for Mexican Americans is not applicable for Mexicans.

This article provides research on predictions of standing height of elderly Japanese by using knee height equations. The authors found significant differences between actual and predicted heights.

Byline: R. N. Fine (1), M. Ho (2), A. Tejani (3) Keywords: Keywords Renal transplantation; Final adult height Abstract: Final adult height following renal transplantation was assessed in 237 recipients enrolled in NAPRTCS before the ages of 11 (girls) and 12 (boys) years and followed for at least 6 months with a functioning graft at or after 18 years of age. The overall change in standardized height (SDS) from baseline to final adult height (FH) was 0.0 however, delta SDS was significantly better for the youngest recipients (6--8 years) than for the older age group. Retarded FH was associated with higher average prednisone dosage and better FH was associated with good graft function. Low baseline SDS was also predictive of retarded FH. Final adult height continues to be suboptimal in the cyclosporine A era. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Pediatrics, SUNY at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, NY 11794--8111, USA. RFINE@mail.som.sunysb.edu, US (2) Emmes Corp., Rockville, Maryland, USA, US (3) Westchester Medical Center, Valhalla, New York, USA, US Article note: Received: 7 June 2001 / Revised: 5 October 2001 / Accepted: 5 October 2001

Research on vertical creep in sitting shows soft tissues beneath the sacrum can contribute up to 30% in total height loss. Researchers need to consider deformation in soft tissue outside the spine when analyzing vertical creep while sitting.

Longitudinal data from the Wroclaw (Poland) Growth Study has been used to investigate the relationships among skeletal maturation rate, midparent height and growth in height during adolescence for 184 boys and 166 girls. Seven biological parameters derived from the Preece-Baines model 1 were applied to the data.

Longitudinal data from the Saskatchewan Pediatric Bone Mineral Accrual Study has been used to study the magnitude and timing of peak velocities in height and tissue for 60 adolescent boys and 53 adolescent girls characterized as early, average, or late maturing. Topics include a comparison of males and females and maturity comparisons.

Research was undertaken on 200 individuals (100 males and 100 females) from the northern districts of Portugal, all Caucasian, between the ages of 20 and 59. Height and bones were measured directly. Estimation of stature is obtained by applying a mathematical method based on a multivariable linear regression between the height of the cadaver and the lengths of humerus and femur. Humerus is measured on full length; femur is measured on both physiological and maximum lengths. Regression formulae and tables for males and females are produced for application in forensic anthropology when studying human skeletal remains. Comparisons are made between these tables and those of earlier authors, allowing us to verify important differences. One of the conclusions concerns the application of regression formulae based on some segment measurements. Due to the extremely high values of standard deviations, these may have no practical application. Keywords: forensic anthropology; stature determination; human skeletal remains

Secular changes in growth and maturation have been well documented in various world populations, with secular increase especially noticeable in the developed countries. To assess the trend in both adult size and tempo of growth we compared the data on stature and body weight obtained in 1992-1993 from 1,804 Melbourne school students aged 5 to 17 with historical data collected from white Australians during the last 100 years. We illustrate the age-dependent trend in stature and body weight by means of regression surfaces. These were constructed by fitting local regression models to historical data and by simple plots showing the overall, and per decade, secular increase in both these measures at peripubertal and adult ages. Because of limited information on sample sizes and variability provided by the historical data, statistical comparisons have been performed only between the present 1992-1993 survey and two earlier independent surveys conducted in 1985 and 1970. The results have shown secular increase in adult stature over the last century, with the rate of increase varying between 0.4 and 2.1 cm/decade in males and 0.01 and 1.6 cm/decade in females. While secular increase in stature has significantly slowed down during the last two decades, the increase in body weight is still continuing at a high rate, and this increase is more pronounced in females. The period of strong secular increase, especially in the tempo of growth, coincided both with the shift toward earlier menarche and the improvement of socioeconomic conditions of the Australian population. The need for further studies to identify factors determining the continuing increase in body weight is emphasized, and caution in using the existing national growth standards for stature and weight is recommended. KEY WORDS: secular increase; stature; weight; schoolchildren

A velocity curve for height and maximum peak velocity (MPV) can be calculated using the Wavelet Interpolation Method. In a study involving 98 boys and 88 girls between the ages of 6 and 17, five maturity groups were defined, from early to late, and four type models were described, based on the appearance of secondary peaks. A later age at MPV is associated with lower velocity of growth at MPV. More boys (82.6%) than girls (76.1%) had a mid-growth spurt, but more girls (93%) than boys (69.4%) had an after-growth spurt.

Research was conducted to examine the existence of bias in reporting weight and height of persons with bulimia nervosa. Participants included 102 bulimia nervosa women patients with mean age of 23.7 years and 204 healthy control subjects who were individually matched to the bulimia nervosa cases. Results indicate errors in the controlled subjects' self reports which were associated with the difference between their actual and desired height and weight. Heightened accuracy in the reports of bulimia nervosa patients shows their intense interest in their weight.

Preschool height-for-age is strongly related to adolescent height among rural adolescents aged 12 to 17 years old in Senegal, West Africa. An examination of preschool stunting on adolescent height and age at menarche among 1,657 children revealed a significant difference in the mean height during adolescence according to preschool height-for-age for both boys and girls. While the height deficit in their first years of life was not offset during late childhood or early adolescence, girls showed some catch-up growth during the second half of their teenage years.

Two groups of male subjects participated in two experiments which measured the amount of maximum isometric strength that can be exerted single-handedly in a kneeling position and investigated the effects of workplaces' layout on workers' strength. The first experiment measured forces that men can exert at maximum reach distance and the second experiment examined the effects of reach distance. Results showed a mean overall force capability variation of 74 to 141% between subjects, suggesting that more force can be exerted when kneeling on one knee than on two knees.

Eight male sports club members aged 21.7 + 1.8 years participated in an experiment performed to compare the changes in stature following plyometric drop-jump and pendulum exercises. A purpose-built stadiometer was used to measure stature changes following the initial 20-minute standing period, the two minutes after exercise, and again after the 20-minute standing recovery. An analogue visual scale was then used to assess muscle and back pain. Results showed a significant degree of spinal loading, as evidenced by changes in stature following performance of the two exercises.

A study on the human body proportions of fossil hominids is evaluated. The study claimed that racial affinity is not essential to determining stature in fossil hominids. A generic ratio is presented that provides an accurate estimate of stature when racial affinity is unknown. However, it is argued that this claim is incorrect since there are alternative ways to study body proportion other than the stature-dependent femur/stature ratio.

This inquiry explores a series of problems related to the femur/stature ratio first raised by Feldesman et al. (1990). In particular, we used a revised data set and a more elaborate research protocol to address questions pertaining to: (1) whether the femur/stature ratios of three quasi-geographic 'races' ('Blacks,' 'Whites,' 'Asians') are statistically significantly different; (2) whether these are statistically (as opposed to biologically) coherent groups; and (3) whether the 'race'-specific ratios are more accurate than the simple femur/stature ratio. We used ANOVA, ANOCOVA, post hoc analysis, k-means cluster analysis, linear discriminant functions, and approximate randomization to determine whether the group differences in the ratio were significant, and to assess the coherence of the 'racial' groups themselves. We used validation procedures including mean absolute deviation, mean squared error, and Pitman's measure of closeness of a known sample of 798 femur/stature pairs to compare the accuracy of the generic ratio and the group-specific ratios. The results confirmed that the 'Black' femur/stature ratio is significantly different from those of 'Whites' and 'Asians'; however, group coherence was poor, with results barely better than chance. We found that 'race'-specific ratios slightly outperform the generic ratio when 'race' is certain, but the gains are small for the assumptions required. More significantly, however, we found that when 'race' attribution is uncertain or unknown, as in paleoanthropology, the wrong ratio (or the wrong regression equation) performs poorer than the generic femur/stature ratio. As a result, we recommend that researchers continue using the generic femur/stature ratio to estimate stature in pre- and protohistoric populations. An alternative equation, a generic regression, yields even better stature estimates; however, we urge further study before recommending that researchers use this instead of the more thoroughly tested generic femur/stature ratio. KEY WORDS Stature estimation, Forensics, Statistical validation, Body size, Fossil hominids

A study that aims to investigate the discovery that human heights declined at the onset of modern economic growth in both Europe and US in the 1800s reveals a decrease in the heights of cadets at West Point Military Academy throughout the antebellum period. The study negates any deterioration in the epidemiological environment because the slaves during that time were not affected. One possible explanation is that the rise in the material standard of living during the period has been overestimated.

Two studies examined whether variations in height influence children's impressions of men and women. In Study 1, 28 preschool-aged children judged the strength, dominance, smartness, and concern for others of male and female targets of different heights. Children judged both taller male and female targets as stronger and more dominant, but not to have more concern for others or smartness than shorter targets. In Study 2, 71 preschool-aged children viewed pairs of male and female targets in three height conditions (male target taller, female target taller, targets equal height) and made trait judgments as in Study 1. Again, taller male targets were judged to be stronger, more dominant, and smarter, but not to have more concern for others than shorter female targets. Moreover, disruptions of gender-typical height differences were associated with reversals in impressions of male and female targets. That is, taller female targets were judged to be stronger, more dominant, and smarter when they appeared with shorter male targets. The present findings not only support the claim that physical stature figures importantly in the process by which children form trait impressions but also indicate that covariations between height and gender exert a strong impact on particular traits children attribute to men and women.