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The transplantation of olfactory ecto-mesenchymal stem cells (OEMSCs) could be a helpful therapeutic strategy for spinal cord repair. Using an acute rat model of high cervical contusion that provokes a persistent hemidiaphragmatic and foreleg paralysis, we evaluated the therapeutic effect of a delayed syngeneic transplantation (two days post-contusion) of OEMSCs within the injured spinal cord. Respiratory function was assessed using diaphragmatic electromyography and neuroelectrophysiological recordings of phrenic nerves (innervating the diaphragm). Locomotor function was evaluated using the ladder-walking locomotor test. Cellular reorganization in the injured area was also studied using immunohistochemical and microscopic techniques. We report a substantial improvement in breathing movements, in activities of the ipsilateral phrenic nerve and ipsilateral diaphragm, and also in locomotor abilities four months post-transplantation with nasal OEMSCs. Moreover, in the grafted spinal cord, axonal disorganization and inflammation were reduced. Some grafted stem cells adopted a neuronal phenotype, and axonal sparing was observed in the injury site. The therapeutic effect on the supraspinal command is presumably because of both neuronal replacements and beneficial paracrine effects on the injury area. Our study provides evidence that nasal OEMSCs could be a first step in clinical application, particularly in patients with reduced breathing/locomotor movements.

Stem cells are considered as promising tools to repair diverse tissue injuries. Among the different stem cell types, the "olfactory ectomesenchymal stem cells" (OE-MSCs) located in the adult olfactory mucosa stand as one of the best candidates. Here, we evaluated if OE-MSC grafts could decrease memory impairments due to ischemic injury. OE-MSCs were collected from syngeneic F344 rats. After a two-step global cerebral ischemia, inducing hippocampal lesions, learning abilities were evaluated using an olfactory associative discrimination task. Cells were grafted into the hippocampus 5 weeks after injury and animal's learning abilities reassessed. Rats were then sacrificed and the brains collected for immunohistochemical analyses. We observed significant impairments in learning and memory abilities following ischemia. However, 4 weeks after OE-MSC grafts, animals displayed learning and memory performances similar to those of controls, while sham rats did not improve them. Immunohistochemical analyses revealed that grafts promoted neuroblast and glial cell proliferation, which could permit to restore cognitive functions. These results demonstrated, for the first time, that syngeneic transplantations of OE-MSCs in rats can restore cognitive abilities impaired after brain injuries and provide support for the development of clinical studies based on grafts of OE-MSCs in amnesic patients following brain injuries.

Background: Stem cell-based therapies are an attractive option to promote regeneration and repair defective tissues and organs. Thanks to their multipotency, high proliferation rate and the lack of major ethical limitations, "olfactory ecto-mesenchymal stem cells" (OE-MSCs) have been described as a promising candidate to treat a variety of damaged tissues. Easily accessible in the nasal cavity of most mammals, these cells are highly suitable for autologous cell-based therapies and do not face issues associated with other stem cells. However, their clinical use in humans and animals is limited due to a lack of preclinical studies on autologous transplantation and because no well-established methods currently exist to cultivate these cells. Here we evaluated the feasibility of collecting, purifying and amplifying OE-MSCs from different mammalian genera with the goal of promoting their interest in veterinary regenerative medicine. Biopsies of olfactory mucosa from eight mammalian genera (mouse, rat, rabbit, sheep, dog, horse, gray mouse lemur and macaque) were collected, using techniques derived from those previously used in humans and rats. The possibility of amplifying these cells and their stemness features and differentiation capability were then evaluated., Results: Biopsies were successfully performed on olfactory mucosa without requiring the sacrifice of the donor animal, except mice. Cell populations were rapidly generated from olfactory mucosa explants. These cells displayed similar key features of their human counterparts: a fibroblastic morphology, a robust expression of nestin, an ability to form spheres and similar expression of surface markers (CD44, CD73). Moreover, most of them also exhibited high proliferation rates and clonogenicity with genus-specific properties. Finally, OE-MSCs also showed the ability to differentiate into mesodermal lineages., Conclusions: This article describes for the first time how millions of OE-MSCs can be quickly and easily obtained from different mammalian genera through protocols that are well-suited for autologous transplantations. Moreover, their multipotency makes them relevant to evaluate therapeutic application in a wide variety of tissue injury models. This study paves the way for the development of new fundamental and clinical studies based on OE-MSCs transplantation and suggests their interest in veterinary medicine.

Global Cerebral Ischemia (GCI) occurs following cardiac arrest or neonatal asphyxia and leads to harmful neurological consequences. In most cases, patients who survive cardiac arrest develop severe cognitive and motor impairments. This study focused on learning and memory deficits associated with brain neuroanatomical reorganization that appears after GCI. The four-vessel occlusion (4VO) model was performed to produce a transient GCI. Hippocampal lesions in ischemic rats were visualized using anatomical Magnetic Resonance Imaging (aMRI). Then, the learning and memory abilities of control and ischemic (bilaterally or unilaterally) rats were assessed through the olfactory associated learning task. Finally, a "longitudinal" histological study was carried out to highlight the cellular reorganizations occurring after GCI. We demonstrated that the imaging, behavioral and histological results are closely related. In fact, aMRI revealed the appearance of hyper-intense signals in the dorsal hippocampus at day 3 post-GCI. Consequently, we showed a rise in cell proliferation (Ki 67 + cells) and endogenous neurogenesis especially in the dentate gyrus (DG) at day 3 post-GCI. Then, hyper-intense signals in the dorsal hippocampus were confirmed by strong neuronal losses in the CA1 layer at day 7 post-GCI. These results were linked with severe learning and memory impairments only in bilaterally ischemic rats at day 14 post-GCI. This amnesia was accompanied by huge astroglial and microglial hyperactivity at day 30 post-GCI. Finally, Nestin + cells and astrocytes gave rise to astroglial scars, which persisted 60days post-GCI. In the light of these results, the 4VO model appears a reliable method to produce amnesia in order to study and develop new therapeutic strategies., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Stem cells are attractive tools to develop new therapeutic strategies for a variety of disorders. While ethical and technical issues, associated with embryonic, fetal and neural stem cells, limit the translation to clinical applications, the nasal stem cells identified in the human olfactory mucosa stand as a promising candidate for stem cell-based therapies. Located in the back of the nose, this multipotent stem cell type is readily accessible in humans, a feature that makes these cells highly suitable for the development of autologous cell-based therapies. However, preclinical studies based on autologous transplantation of rodent olfactory stem cells are impeded because of the narrow opening of the nasal cavity. In this study, we report the development of a unique method permitting to quickly and safely biopsy olfactory mucosa in rats. Using this newly developed technique, rat stem cells expressing the stem cell marker Nestin were successfully isolated without requiring the sacrifice of the donor animal. As an evidence of the self-renewal capacity of the isolated cells, several millions of rat cells were amplified from a single biopsy within four weeks. Using an olfactory discrimination test, we additionally showed that this novel biopsy method does not affect the sense of smell and the learning and memory abilities of the operated animals. This study describes for the first time a methodology allowing the derivation of rat nasal cells in a way that is suitable for studying the effects of autologous transplantation of any cell type present in the olfactory mucosa in a wide variety of rat models., (Copyright © 2014. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Engraftment of nasal olfactory ensheathing cells (OEC) is considered as a promising therapeutic strategy for spinal cord repair and one clinical trial has already been initiated. However, while the vast majority of fundamental studies were focused on the recovery of locomotor function, the efficiency of this cellular tool for repairing respiratory motor dysfunction, which affects more than half of paraplegic/tetraplegic patients, remains unknown. Using a rat model that mimics the mechanisms encountered after a cervical contusion that induces a persistent hemi-diaphragmatic paralysis, we assessed the therapeutic efficiency of a delayed transplantation (2 weeks post-contusion) of nasal OECs within the injured spinal cord. Functional recovery was quantified with respiratory behavior tests, diaphragmatic electromyography and neuro-electrophysiological recording of the phrenic motoneurons while axogenesis was evaluated using immunohistochemistry. We show that 3 months post-transplantation, nasal OECs improve i) breathing movements, ii) activities of the ipsilateral diaphragm and corresponding phrenic nerve, and iii) axonal sprouting in the injury site. We also demonstrate that this functional partial recovery is mediated by the restoration of ipsilateral supraspinal command. Our study brings further evidence that olfactory ensheathing cells could have clinical application especially in tetraplegic patients with impaired breathing movements. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Understanding olfactory ensheathing glia and their prospect for nervous system repair., (Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

To evaluate the plasticity processes occurring in the spared and injured tissue after partial spinal cord injury, we have compared the level of axon growth markers after a C2 cervical hemisection in rats between the contralateral (spared) and ipsilateral (injured) cervical cord using western blotting and immunohistochemical techniques. In the ipsilateral spinal cord 7 days after injury, although GAP-43 levels were increased in the ventral horn caudal to the injury, they were globally decreased in the whole structure (C1-C6). By contrast, in the contralateral intact side 7 days and 1 month after injury, we have found an increase of GAP-43 and betaIII tubulin levels, suggesting that processes of axonal sprouting may occur in the spinal region contralateral to the injury. This increase of GAP-43 in the contralateral spinal cord after cervical hemisection may account, at least partially, to the spontaneous ipsilateral recovery observed after a cervical hemisection.

High cervical spinal cord injury (SCI) interrupts bulbospinal respiratory pathways innervating phrenic motoneurons, and induces an inactivation of phrenic nerves (PN) and diaphragm. We have previously shown that the ipsilateral (ipsi) PN was inactivated following a lateral C2 SCI, but was spontaneously partially reactivated 7 days post-SCI. This phrenic reactivation depended on contralateral (contra) descending pathways, located laterally, that cross the spinal midline. We analysed here whether long-term post-lesional changes may occur in the respiratory network. We showed that ipsi PN reactivation was greater at 3 months compared with 7 days post-SCI, and that it was enhanced after acute contra phrenicotomy (Phx), which also induced a substantial reactivation of the ipsi diaphragm (not detected at 7 days post-SCI). At 3 months post-SCI (compared with 7 days post-SCI), ipsi PN activity was only moderately affected by ipsi Phx or by gallamine treatment, a nicotinic neuromuscular blocking agent, indicating that it was less dependent on ipsi sensory phrenic afferents. After an additional acute contra SCI (C1) performed laterally, ipsi PN activity was abolished in rats 7 days post-SCI, but persisted in rats 3 months post-SCI. This activity thus depended on new functional descending pathways located medially rather than laterally. These may not involve newly recruited neurons as retrograde labelling showed that ipsi phrenic motoneurons were innervated by a similar number of medullary respiratory neurons after a short and long post-lesional time. These results show that after a long post-lesional time, phrenic reactivation is reinforced by an anatomo-functional reorganization of spinal respiratory pathways.

After disruption of the descending respiratory pathways induced by unilateral cervical spinal cord injury (SCI) in rats, the inactivated ipsilateral (ipsi) phrenic nerve (PN) discharge may partially recover following some specific experimental procedures [such as contralateral (contra) phrenicotomy (Phx)]. This phrenic reactivation involves normally silent contra pathways decussating at the level of the phrenic nucleus, but the mechanisms of this crossed phrenic activation are still poorly understood. The present study investigates the contribution of sensory phrenic afferents to this process by comparing the acute effects of ipsi and contra Phx. We show that the phrenic discharge (recorded on intact PNs) was almost completely suppressed 0 h and 3 h after a lateral cervical SCI, but was already spontaneously reactivated after 1 week. This ipsi phrenic activity was enhanced immediately after contra Phx and was completely suppressed by an acute contra cervical section, indicating that it is triggered by crossed phrenic pathways located laterally in the contra spinal cord. Ipsi phrenic activity was also abolished immediately after ipsi Phx that interrupts phrenic sensory afferents, an effect prevented by prior acute ablation of the cervical dorsal root ganglia, indicating that crossed phrenic activation depends on excitatory phrenic sensory afferents but also putatively on inhibitory non-phrenic afferents. On the basis of these data, we propose a new model for crossed phrenic activation after partial cervical injury, with an essential role played by ipsi-activating phrenic sensory afferents.

The use of fluorescent dyes has been a major improvement for paths tracing studies. However, these tracers present different properties and have to be chosen carefully. The present study compares the ability of different tracers to specifically label phrenic motoneurons (PMNs) innervating the rat diaphragm. The administration of fluorogold (FG) from the transected phrenic nerve specifically labeled PMNs in the ipsilateral spinal cord. However, when FG was injected into one hemidiaphragm, in addition with ipsilateral PMNs, a less intense artifactual labeling was observed in the spinal cord (mainly in contralateral PMNs) and in the medulla oblongata (mainly in the area postrema and cranial motor nuclei). Similar results were observed using horseradish peroxidase, while no labeling was observed after injection of nuclear yellow or diamidino yellow into the diaphragm. By contrast, the dextran amine fluororuby (FR) and the carbocyanine DiAsp selectively and exclusively labeled ipsilateral PMNs 2 or 3 weeks after injection into the diaphragm, respectively. The lipophilic properties of DiAsp and the high molecular weight of FR may prevent their diffusion to adjacent tissues and into the blood stream which seems to account for the artifactual labeling observed with the other tracers. The higher homogeneity and quality of the labeling observed with FR compared to DiAsp make it the most appropriate tracer for the specific monosynaptic fluorescent labeling of PMNs after injection into the diaphragm.

This study aimed to highlight the functional aspects of diaphragm reinnervation by laryngeal motoneurons after bilateral phrenicotomy or complete cervical transection. The left recurrent laryngeal nerve was connected to the left phrenic nerve in 14 rats. Five months later, all bridged rats presented a substantial ipsilateral diaphragm recovery (74.2 +/- 10% of contralateral activity) whereas the diaphragm remained paralysed in non-bridged rats (n = 5/5). After additional right phrenicotomy, functional breathing persisted in bridged rats whereas all non-bridged died. After complete C2 spinal transection, diaphragm respiratory discharges persisted in bridged rats. The reinnnervation by laryngeal motoneurons was confirmed by retrograde labeling, stimulus-elicited diaphragm response by vagal stimulation and diaphragm inactivation after vagotomy. In conclusion, the recurrent-phrenic nerve anastomosis induces a reliable functional diaphragm outcome even after contralateral diaphragm denervation or complete high cervical spinal cord injury, and could be considered as a clinical repair strategy for re-establishing diaphragm autonomy following spinal cord trauma.

Although axon regeneration is limited in the central nervous system, partial lesions of the spinal cord induce neuroplasticity processes that can lead to spontaneous functional improvement. To determine whether such compensatory mechanisms occur in the respiratory system, we analyzed the incidence of partial injury of the cervical spinal cord on diaphragm activity in adult rats. We show that a section of the lateral area of the C2 cervical spinal cord induces complete phrenic nerve inactivation and ipsilateral hemidiaphragm paralysis, whereas medial or dorsolateral sections had only a moderate effect on respiratory activity. In the case of lateral hemisection, activity of the ipsilateral phrenic nerve was partially restored after a lapse of 3 months. No spontaneous diaphragm recovery was observed, however, even after a lapse of several months in the case of hemisection or lateral section. Ipsilateral hemidiaphragm activity could however be restored after transection of the contralateral phrenic nerve, by activation of the "crossed phrenic phenomenon" (involving activation of previously latent respiratory contralateral pathways crossing the midline). These data suggest that the respiratory system develops important long-term plasticity processes at the level of phrenic motoneuron innervation. However, they do not by themselves allow substantial diaphragm recovery, underscoring the continued need for developing repair strategies. These studies also validates the use of the respiratory system as a model to evaluate the functional incidence of repair strategies not only after hemisection but also after more limited sectioning restricted to the lateral side of the cervical cord.

Research on spinal cord trauma requires models reflecting the contusion mechanisms encountered in clinical situation. The aim of this study was to develop in the adult rat a reproducible model of upper cervical spinal cord contusion inducing persistent unilateral diaphragm deficit. After dura and pia matter removal, weight drop and compression were targeted at the ventro-lateral funiculi which contain the bulbospinal descending respiratory pathways that command the phrenic motoneurons innervating the diaphragm. At 7 days post-injury, the left diaphragm activity recorded in contused rats (27.4 +/- 5.1% of the contralateral activity) was significantly lower than in the sham group (97.6 +/- 1.2%). This respiratory deficit still persisted 1 month later. Histology showed a reproducible left C2-lateralized lesion that involved both white and gray matter including the ventro-lateral funiculi. This C2 contusion model provides a basis for testing both regenerative and neuroprotective strategies aimed at improving functional respiratory recovery after spinal cord trauma.

In several central nervous system neuronal populations, axotomy triggers the upregulation of regeneration-associated genes such as c-Jun, which determines neurons ability to regenerate axon in a growth-permissive environment. We analyzed the expression of c-Jun in rat ventral medullary neurons after cervical hemisection in order to investigate their intrinsic regenerative potential. Maximal expression of c-Jun was observed 7 days after injury mainly in axotomized medullary neurons located in the gigantocellularis nucleus, the raphe nucleus and, although less intensively, in the rostral ventral respiratory group. This suggests that after high cervical injury, a large number of medullary neurons projecting to the spinal cord become competent for axonal regeneration, although this regenerating potential may not be equivalent between the various neuronal populations.

Functional respiratory recovery was evaluated by recording diaphragm and phrenic nerve activity several months after cervical cord hemisection followed by olfactory ensheathing cell (OEC) transplantation. The intact side was taken as a control in each rat. Sham-transplanted rats did not recover respiratory activity from the ipsilateral lesioned side. By contrast, ipsilateral phrenic and diaphragmatic activities recovered in transplanted rats amounted to 80.7% and 73% of their controls, respectively. After contralateral acute C1 section eliminating any contralateral influence from crossed compensatory pathways, the ipsilateral phrenic activity remained at 57.5% of the control, indicating that the phrenic recovery originated from the ipsilateral side. Supralesional stimulation in these rats elicited sublesional ipsilateral postsynaptic phrenic responses showing that transplantation helped ipsilateral fibers to again transmit nervous messages to the phrenic target, leading to substantial functional recovery. The origin of mechanisms involved in respiratory recovery (regeneration, resurrection, sprouting, sparing, demasking of latent pathways) is discussed.