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This chapter discusses how different analytical perspectives affect what policy interventions are deemed warranted and effective in supporting the industrial transformation required to reach climate neutrality. The development of wind and solar power over the last 40 years gives hope and provides useful examples of successful policies. However, the European Commission has for long opposed many of these policies, due to a narrow focus on market failures and static cost efficiency derived from a neoclassical economics perspective. Recent documents in the EU indicate a new focus on innovation and industrial change, which may enhance the EU’s ability to lead the climate transition. For this, a broader analytical perspective is required, such as the technological innovation systems approach, which stresses dynamic long-term efficiency, acknowledges the need for technology-specific policies, including market formation, and uses system weaknesses as guide to policy intervention.

Energy innovation is essential for tackling climate change. However, an established set of indicators, that can support policy makers in their design of policy mixes, has not been developed for evaluating the performance of energy innovation systems. The purpose of this study is, therefore, to list and classify a large set of indicators of the performance of energy innovation systems at sectoral and technological levels. 120 listed indicators are evaluated using four usefulness criteria, demonstrating significant weaknesses in the available indicators. The indicators are also classified according to an innovation process categorization to see if they cover all aspects of an innovation system along the entire innovation chain. In order to illustrate their application, the Nordic countries are selected for an analysis at the sectoral level, demonstrating a variety in the dynamics of energy innovation systems among these countries. At the level of an individual technology, we show how 90 indicators match the seven functions in a technological innovation system and how they, therefore, can guide policy by helping to analyze the strength of each function. Policy making may be further supported by an understanding of the dynamic relations between different indicators. Finally, recommendations for further research are given.

In this paper we present a set of image analysis techniques used for extraction of information from cross-sectional images of nuclear fuel assemblies, achieved from gamma emission tomography measurements. These techniques are based on template matching, an established method for identifying objects with known properties in images. We demonstrate a rod template matching algorithm for identification and counting of the fuel rods present in the image. This technique may be applicable in nuclear safeguards inspections, because of the potential of verifying the presence of all fuel rods, or potentially discovering any that are missing. We also demonstrate the accurate determination of the position of a fuel assembly, or parts of the assembly, within the imaged area. Accurate knowledge of the assembly position enables detailed modelling of the gamma transport through the fuel, which in turn is needed to make tomographic reconstructions quantifying the activity in each fuel rod with high precision. Using the full gamma energy spectrum, details about the location of different gamma-emitting isotopes within the fuel assembly can be extracted. We also demonstrate the capability to determine the position of supporting parts of the nuclear fuel assembly through their attenuating effect on the gamma rays emitted from the fuel. Altogether this enhances the capabilities of non-destructive nuclear fuel characterization.

© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. This paper addresses the politics and economics of constructing, contesting and reducing the "socio-political space" for renewables connected to the German Renewable Energy Act (EEG). The political discourse is traced, revealing a gulf between "fit and conform" versus "stretch and transform" narratives. The former focus on short-term consumer costs, short learning periods and cost reductions from R&D rather than from market formation. The latter focus on total costs and acknowledge the need for lengthy learning periods and market formation to reduce costs. The version of the "fit and conform" narrative which recently became dominant, misrepresents the EEG surcharge, exaggerates the "burden" by ignoring external costs of fossil generation and doesn't consider inter-generational equity issues. This reflects the defensive reactions of a politically entrenched industry caught in a process of creative destruction, appealing to political actors such as the European Commission by invoking Europe's industrial competitiveness and (ideologically shared) technology-neutral policies.

The Digital Cherenkov Viewing Device (DCVD) is a tool used to verify irradiated nuclear fuel assemblies in wet storage by imaging the Cherenkov light produced by the radiation emitted from the assemblies. It is frequently used for partial defect verification, verifying that part of an assembly has not been removed and/or replaced. In one of the verification procedures used, the detected total Cherenkov light intensities from a set of assemblies are compared to predicted intensities, which are calculated using operator declarations for the assemblies. This work presents a new, time-efficient method to simulate DCVD images of fuel assemblies, allowing for estimations of the Cherenkov light production, transport and detection. Qualitatively, good agreement between simulated and measured images is demonstrated. Quantitatively, it is shown that relative intensity predictions based on simulated images are within 0.5% of corresponding predictions based solely on the production of Cherenkov light, neglecting light transport and detection. Consequently, in most cases it is sufficient to use predictions based on produced Cherenkov light, neglecting transport and detection, thus substantially reducing the time needed for simulations. In a verification campaign, assemblies are grouped according to their type, and the relative measured and predicted intensities are compared in a group. By determining transparency factors, describing the fraction of Cherenkov light that is blocked by the top plate of an assembly, it is possible to adjust predictions based on the production of Cherenkov light to take the effect of the top plate into account. This procedure allows assemblies of the same type bit with different top plates to be compared with increased accuracy. The effect of using predictions adjusted with transparency factors were assessed experimentally on a set of Pressurized Water Reactor 17x17 assemblies having five different top plate designs. As a result of the adjustment, the agreement between measured and predicted relative intensities for the whole data set was enhanced, resulting in a reduction of an RMSE from 14.1% to 10.7%. It is expected that further enhancements may be achieved by introducing more detailed top-plate and spacer descriptions.

A fuel assembly operated in a nuclear power plant typically contains 100–300 fuel rods, depending on fuel type, which become strongly radioactive during irradiation in the reactor core. For operational and security reasons, it is of interest to experimentally deduce rod-wise information from the fuel, preferably by means of non-destructive measurements. The tomographic SPECT technique offers such possibilities through its two-step application; (1) recording the gamma-ray flux distribution around the fuel assembly, and (2) reconstructing the assembly׳s internal source distribution, based on the recorded radiation field. In this paper, algorithms for performing the latter step and extracting quantitative relative rod-by-rod data are accounted for. As compared to application of SPECT in nuclear medicine, nuclear fuel assemblies present a much more heterogeneous distribution of internal attenuation to gamma radiation than the human body, typically with rods containing pellets of heavy uranium dioxide surrounded by cladding of a zirconium alloy placed in water or air. This inhomogeneity severely complicates the tomographic quantification of the rod-wise relative source content, and the deduction of conclusive data requires detailed modelling of the attenuation to be introduced in the reconstructions. However, as shown in this paper, simplified models may still produce valuable information about the fuel. Here, a set of reconstruction algorithms for SPECT on nuclear fuel assemblies are described and discussed in terms of their quantitative performance for two applications; verification of fuel assemblies׳ completeness in nuclear safeguards, and rod-wise fuel characterization. It is argued that a request not to base the former assessment on any a priori information brings constraints to which reconstruction methods that may be used in that case, whereas the use of a priori information on geometry and material content enables highly accurate quantitative assessment, which may be particularly useful in the latter application. Two main classes of algorithms are covered; (1) analytic filtered back-projection algorithms, and (2) a group of model-based or algebraic algorithms. For the former class, a basic algorithm has been implemented, which does not take attenuation in the materials of the fuel assemblies into account and which assumes an idealized imaging geometry. In addition, a novel methodology has been presented for introducing a first-order correction to the obtained images for these deficits; in particular, the effects of attenuation are taken into account by modelling the response for an object with a homogeneous mix of fuel materials in the image area. Neither the basic algorithm, nor the correction method requires prior knowledge of the fuel geometry, but they result in images of the assembly׳s internal activity distribution. Image analysis is then applied to deduce quantitative information. Two algebraic algorithms are also presented, which model attenuation in the fuel assemblies to different degrees; either assuming a homogenous mix of materials in the image area without a priori information or utilizing known information of the assembly geometry and of its position in the measuring setup for modelling the gamma-ray attenuation in detail. Both algorithms model the detection system in detail. The former algorithm returns an image of the cross-section of the object, from which quantitative information is extracted, whereas the latter returns conclusive relative rod-by-rod data. Here, all reconstruction methods are demonstrated on simulated data of a 96-rod fuel assembly in a tomographic measurement setup. The assembly was simulated with the same activity content in all rods for evaluation purposes. Based on the results, it is argued that the choice of algorithm to a large degree depends on application, and also that a combination of reconstruction methods may be useful. A discussion on alternative analysis methods is also included.

Recently, nuclear power has received support from environmental and climate researchers emphasizing the need to address factors of global importance such as climate change, peace and welfare. Here, we add to previous discussions on meeting future climate goals while securing safe supplies of energy by discussing future nuclear energy systems in the perspective of strengthening nuclear non-proliferation and aiding in the process of reducing stockpiles of nuclear weapons materials. New nuclear energy systems, currently under development within the Generation IV (Gen IV) framework, are being designed to offer passive safety and inherent means to mitigate consequences of nuclear accidents. Here, we describe how these systems may also be used to reduce or even eliminate stockpiles of civil and military plutonium—the former present in waste from today׳s reactors and the latter produced for weapons purposes. It is argued that large-scale implementation of Gen IV systems would impose needs for strong nuclear safeguards. The deployment of Safeguards-by-Design principles in the design and construction phases can avoid draining of IAEA resources by enabling more effective and cost-efficient nuclear safeguards, as compared to the current safeguards implementation, which was enforced decades after the first nuclear power plants started operation.

This paper describes possible ways of analyzing and interpreting data obtained using the digital Cherenkov viewing device on spent nuclear fuel assemblies for the identification of partial defects ...

In assessing the performance of academic research, there is a growing interest in combining excellence with impact criteria. A frequently encountered belief is that impact should be understood in terms of new firms and patents. Others argue that academic R&D generates impacts that greatly exceed such commercialization efforts by academic researchers. The tension between these two beliefs reveals a risk that the criteria for assessing the impact of academic R&D, including criteria for allocating performance-based funding, may neglect vital aspects of how science is made useful. With insights gained from a comprehensive analysis of a well-reputed academic body, Chalmers Energy Initiative, we address this risk with the aim of contributing to the eventual design of an evidence-based science policy with appropriate evaluation routines.

Decarbonizing electricity production in the EU may necessitate building new “low-carbon” capacity (excluding nuclear investments) to deliver 3500 TWh by 2050. Offshore wind power has the potential to contribute substantially to fill this gap. Realizing this potential is, however, difficult since deployment offshore does not constitute simple diversification by the onshore wind turbine industry to a new segment. This paper identifies factors obstructing the development of the northern European innovation system centered on offshore wind power, specifies a set of associated policy challenges and discusses various policy responses.

Gamma spectroscopy and gamma emission tomography are two non-destructive measurement techniques for assessing the performance of nuclear fuel which have been investigated in this thesis for existing and novel applications through theoretical studies and experimental demonstrations. For assessment of individual fuel rods using gamma spectroscopy, fuel assemblies are dismantled so that the fuel rods may be measured separately, which is time-consuming and may cause damage to the fuel. Gamma tomography is more seldom used, but its application on complete fuel assemblies would enable the assessment of individual fuel rods without the need to disassemble the fuel. Both techniques are based on recording gamma rays, emitted at characteristic energies from decaying radioactive products in the fuel.The feasibility of measuring short-lived fission gasses in the gas plenum of fuel rods with short cooling time was experimentally investigated. Based on the feasibility demonstration, a method was proposed and experimentally demonstrated for determining the fission gas release fraction of 133Xe in fuel rods with short cooling time. Additionally, a method for investigating the origin of released fission gasses based on the measured ratio of 133Xe/85Kr in the fuel rod gas plenum was demonstrated. These methods may be employed at research reactors, where fuel with short cooling time is available for measurement.A gamma emission tomography instrument has been designed, constructed and experimentally demonstrated on a Halden Reactor fuel assembly. Simulation studies showed that the instrument and the tomographic reconstruction methods employed may be useful for: identifying a leaking fuel rod in an assembly by its lack of fission gas content; reconstruction of the rod-wise fission product distributions in the fuel stack and plenum regions of the assembly; and determining the rod-wise fission gas release fractions.In the experimental demonstration, the rod-wise distributions of the fission products 137Cs and 85Kr in the fuel stack and plenum regions of the assembly were reconstructed, as well as the distributions of the activation products 60Co and 178mHf in the plenum region, revealing the plenum springs and tie rods, respectively. The reconstructed data was in the form of images, useful for qualitative assessment of the fuel.

In cases of fuel failure in irradiated nuclear fuel assemblies, causing leakage of fission gasses from a fuel rod, there is a need for reliable non-destructive measurement methods that can determine which rod is failed. Methods currently in use include visual inspection, eddy current, and ultrasonic testing, but additional alternatives have been under consideration, including tomographic gamma measurements. The simulations covered in this report show that tomographic measurements could be feasible. By measuring a characteristic gamma energy from fission gasses in the gas plenum, the rod-by-rod gamma source distribution within the fuel rod plena may be reconstructed into an image or data set which could then be compared to the predicted distribution of fission gasses, e.g. from the STAV code. Rods with significantly less fission gas in the plenum may then be identified as leakers. Results for rods with low fission gas release may, however, in some cases be inconclusive since these rods will already have a weak contribution to the measured gamma-ray intensities and for such rods there is a risk that a further decrease in fission gas content due to a leak may not be detectable. In order to evaluate this and similar experimental issues, measurement campaigns are planned using a tomographic measurement system at the Halden Boiling Water Reactor.

There is a widespread belief that EU underperforms in the commercialization of publicly funded research and that the appropriate policy response is to transfer the ownership of intellectual property rights to Universities. This paper assesses the validity of these twin beliefs. In addressing the first, we limit ourselves to Sweden which still retains its "Teacher's Exemption" model. In spite of confident statements made in the literature and by Government, we provide evidence to the contrary, i.e. that Swedish academia performs well in terms of commercialization. We also have doubts about the usefulness of the medicine prescribed to cure the alleged problem. Largely drawing on US literature, we argue that the medicine risks harming strong university-industry networks, biasing technical change, reducing entrepreneurial activity and generating costs to Universities which may be detrimental to technology transfer. In conclusion, we seriously question the validity of both beliefs.

The Digital Cherenkov Viewing Device (DCVD) is an instrument that records the Cherenkov light emitted from irradiated nuclear fuels in wet storages. The presence, intensity and pattern of the Cherenkov light can be used by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) inspectors to verify that the fuel properties comply with declarations. The DCVD is since several years approved by the IAEA for gross defect verification, i.e. to control whether an item in a storage pool is a nuclear fuel assembly or a non-fuel item [1] . Recently, it has also been endorsed as a tool for partial defect verification, i.e. to identify if a fraction of the fuel rods in an assembly have been removed or replaced. The latter recognition was based on investigations of experimental studies on authentic fuel assemblies and of simulation studies on hypothetic cases of partial defects [2] . This paper describes the simulation methodology and software which was used in the partial defect capability evaluations. The developed simulation procedure uses three stand-alone software packages: the ORIGEN-ARP code [3] used to obtain the gamma-ray spectrum from the fission products in the fuel, the Monte Carlo toolkit Geant4 [4] for simulating the gamma-ray transport in and around the fuel and the emission of Cherenkov light, and the ray-tracing programme Zemax [5] used to model the light transport through the assembly geometry to the DCVD and to mimic the behaviour of its lens system. Furthermore, the software allows for detailed information from the plant operator on power and/or burnup distributions to be taken into account to enhance the authenticity of the simulated images. To demonstrate the results of the combined software packages, simulated and measured DCVD images are presented. A short discussion on the usefulness of the simulation tool is also included.

In the EU policy debate, there is an emerging understanding of the existence of a substantial gap between current investment levels and those required to reach the 2020 energy targets. For energy supply and transmission alone, the gap is estimated to be almost €500 billion. Bridging this funding gap requires the financial sector to supply the capital needed by firms in their entrepreneurial activities. Over the last thirty years, the financial sector has, however, shifted its focus towards speculative and high-risk financial investments with short periods of investment and high returns. It is quite plausible that the ability of the EU to bridge the funding gap and realise the desired process of Schumpeterian “creative destruction” in the energy sector will be constrained by this shift. We conclude that an adequate mobilisation of financial resources may require public investments to be greatly increased and/or a reform of the financial system.

The electricity sector has to undergo a large-scale transformation process to reduce the threat of climate change. Wind power has a strategic role to play in this process. This paper makes a preliminary assessment of the types and numbers of engineers required to sustain a large-scale expansion of offshore wind energy in the EU and draws lessons for universities. A variety of competences are required, including (a) deep competences in many fields (electrical and mechanical engineering, but also engineering physics and civil engineering); (b) integrative competences within engineering (e.g., mechanical and electrical engineering) and between engineering and non-engineering fields (e.g., meteorology and logistics). A large number of engineers are required. A rough estimate indicates a need for more than 10 000 new engineers until 2020. The nature and volume of the competences required raise serious questions for the scale and organization of training programmes at universities.

There is a great interest in synthetic fuels produced from gasified biomass. These are expected to substitute for oil, complementing first generation biofuels. While the long-term substitution potential is uncertain, it may amount to a quarter of current fuel consumption in the EU. Various design approaches for gasifying biomass have been under development for decades but the current EU focus is on nine smaller scale demonstration plants, involving three technological trajectories. The purpose of this paper is to identify policy challenges and discuss options for moving to a larger scale diffusion of gasified biomass in the EU. Such a move requires that technical and market uncertainties are handled by policy. Substantial demonstration and other risk absorption schemes will have to be developed to shift technical risks to society at large. Market uncertainties need to be reduced by a regulatory framework that ensures that markets are formed. A range of instruments for forming markets is assessed. It is argued that in order for the policy to be effective, markets for all three trajectories should be created in parallel. This leads us to suggest either dedicated quotas or a feed-in-law. Yet, both these instruments have drawbacks and a ‘bridging policy’ is probably necessary.

It is commonly believed that the academic sector does not generate enough value for society. This value is often measured in terms of new firms, patents and products, leading to policy responses which aim to enhance 'commercialisation' by academics. However, others maintain that academic research generates benefits in many ways, some of which are difficult to measure, and that policy must look beyond the academic sector to find ways of improving the impact of academic R&D. Applying a new version of the 'technological innovation system' framework to nanotechnology in Sweden, we find a rich pattern of impact, including substantial 'commercialisation'. However, the effect of academic activities is constrained by factors exogenous to academia, in particular a lack of knowledge about environmental and health risks, institutional and market uncertainties, poorly coordinated policies and insufficient access to innovation-related capital. Policy-makers seeking to improve the impact of academic R&D should help to resolve these issues. Copyright The Author 2012. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com, Oxford University Press.

This paper argues (1) that technology-specific policies are necessary if we are to meet the climate challenge and (2) that a main contribution of innovation system (IS) analysis to the study of sustainability transitions is that it allows policy makers to identify the processes and components in a system where intervention is likely to matter most. We demonstrate that an IS framework can identify a diverse set of system weaknesses in the field of environmental innovation and identify five venues for further research that can help strengthen the framework and improve its application to environmental innovations.

A tomographic technique for determination of the thermal power distribution in nuclear fuel assemblies is under development. The purpose is to provide an experimental validation tool for core simulation codes. Such codes are essential for the operation of nuclear power reactors, and validation is important in the process of improving and developing the codes as well as the fuel. The tomographic method is nonintrusive and offers large amounts of data within a normal revision shutdown. In earlier experimental investigations using a test platform, the method proved useful, demonstrating results of satisfying quality. However, the measuring setup also revealed nonfeasible properties related to transport, decontamination, and background radiation shielding. In this paper, the design of a new measuring device is presented. It is based on experiences from the test platform, but its size and weight make it advantageous regarding transports and decontamination. Moreover, the design inherently allows for more efficient background shielding. The latter has been investigated in a detailed study using the MCNP simulation code. The results confirm the high levels of background radiation observed in the test platform. It is also concluded that the shielding properties in the new design are sufficient.

In the European policy debate, tradable green certificates (TGC) have been suggested to be a superior regulatory framework for promoting the diffusion of renewable electricity technologies. The purpose of this paper is to assess the performance of the Swedish TGC system, contributing to the European debate on the suitability of different types of frameworks. The expectations of the TGC system were that it would: (a) be effective in terms of increasing the supply of "green" electricity; (b) do this in a cost effective manner (from both a social and a consumer perspective): (c) generate an equitable distribution of costs and benefits and (d) drive technical change. So far, it has performed adequately in terms of effectiveness and social cost effectiveness. However, consumer costs have been substantially higher than expected, very large rents are generated and, at best, it contributes marginally to technical change. Thus. a TGC framework should be selected if the overriding concern is to minimize short term social costs of reaching a certain goal with a high degree of predictability. However, it cannot be expected to also drive technical change, keep consumer costs down and be equitable. Such trade-offs need to be revealed and not obscured by analysts. Original Publication:Anna Bergek and Staffan Jacobsson, Are tradable green certificates a cost-efficient policy driving technical change or a rent-generating machine? Lessons from Sweden 2003-2008, 2010, ENERGY POLICY, (38), 3, 1255-1271.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.11.001Copyright: Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam.http://www.elsevier.com/

Gasified biomass is a technology that has the potential to partially replace fossil fuels for the production of heat, electricity, transport fuels, synthetic natural gas (BioSNG) and chemicals. In the context of climate change, biomass gasification is an attractive technology. It is, however, still in the early phase of its diffusion and much of the knowledge resides in the academic sector and in small companies-the technological innovation system (TIS) is in the process of being formed. Austria is one of the leading European countries in this field and much of the development in Austria can be traced to one prominent individual, Professor Hermann Hofbauer at the Technical University of Vienna. The purpose of this paper is to analyze how and the extent to which an individual academic, Professor Hofbauer, has influenced the formation of a TIS centred on gasified biomass in Austria. We find that his impact is multidimensional and significant but that there is also a frictional and intentional resistance that obstructs the commercialisation of the new technology. These sources of resistance go beyond the ability of an individual system builder to handle. Policy makers, therefore, need to add a strong element of system building activities that interact with and supplement those pursued by Professor Hofbauer.

SUMMARY This article is concerned with the introduction of electronic control devices (‘numerical controls’) in machine tools. This has provided substantial benefits to firms in that it saves both capital and labour, improves product quality and reduces the time required to bring new products onto the market. Whilst these advantages may appear to benefit developed countries disproportionately, the most significant benefit conferred is probably in relation to the saving of skilled labour. Since skilled labour is the major element in the developed countries' comparative advantage, it is likely that the diffusion ot these machine tools will move comparative advantage in favour of the newly industrialising countries (NICs). However, the article concludes with the warning that advances in automation technology will probably reduce this temporary shift. RESUMEL'electronique et le fosse technologique: le cas des machines-outils a commande numerique Cet article concerne l'introduction de dispositifs de commande numerique sur les machines-outils. Les avantages: economies de capital et de main-d'oeuvre, amelioration de la qualite et deduction des delais de production. Ils paraissent donner aux pays developpes plusieurs longueurs d'avance, mais le principal est l'economie de main-d'oeuvre qualifiee. Puisque cet element est le plus important des avantages des pays developpes, il est probable que la diffusion de ces machines-outils profite surtout aux pays d'industrialisation recente. L'article conclut cependant que les progres de l'automation finiront par compenser probablement cette evolution temporaire. RESUMENLa electronica y las diferencias tecnologicas: el caso de las maquinas-herramienta de control numerico Este articulo se concentra en la introduccion de los dispositivos de control electronico (‘controles numericos’) en las maquinas-herramienta. Esto ha proporcionado beneficios importantes a las empresas porque ahorra tanto capital como mano de obra, mejora la calidad del producto y reduce el tiempo necesario para introducir nuevos productos en el mercado. Aunque estas ventajas parezcan beneficiar a los paises desarrollados de una manera desproporcionada, el beneficio mas importante que se obtiene esta probablemente relacionado con el ahorro de mano de obra especializada. Como le mano de obra especializada es el elemento mas importante en la ventaja comparativa de los paises desarrollados, es probable que la divulgacion de estas maquinas-herramienta traslade esta ventaja comparativa en favor de los paises recientemente industrializados. No obstante, el articulo concluye con un aviso de que los progresos realizados en la tecnologia automatizada probablemente reducira este cambio provisional.

Nuclear energy is currently one of the world’s main sources of electricity. Closely connected to the use of nuclear energy are important issues such as the nonproliferation of fissile material that may potentially used in nuclear weapons (safeguards), and the management of the highly radioactive nuclear waste. This thesis addresses both these issues by contributing to the development of new experimental methods for ensuring safe and secure handling of the waste, with focus on methods to be used prior to encapsulation and final storage.The methods rely on high resolution gamma ray spectroscopy (HRGS), involving the measurement and analysis of emitted gamma radiation from the fission products 137Cs, 134Cs and 154Eu. This technique is nondestructive, making it relatively nonintrusive with respect to the normal operation of the nuclear facilities.For the safeguards issue, it is important to experimentally verify the presence and identity of nuclear fuel assemblies and also that the fuel has experienced normal, civilian reactor operation. It has been shown in this thesis that the HRGS method may be used for verifying operator declared fuel parameters such as burnup, cooling time and irradiation history. In the experimental part of the work, the burnup and the cooling time has been determined with an accuracy of 1.6% and 1.5%, respectively (1 σ).A technique has also been demonstrated, utilizing the ratio 134Cs/154Eu, with which it is possible to determine whether a fuel assembly is of MOX or LEU type. This is of interest for safeguards as well as for the safe operation of a final storage facility.As an improvement to the HRGS technique, measuring a part of the fuel assembly length in order to reduce measurement time has been suggested and investigated. A theoretical case for partial defect verification has also been studied as an extension of the HRGS technique. Finally, HRGS has been used for determining the decay heat in spent nuclear fuel assemblies, which is of importance for the safe operation of a final storage facility. This application is based on the radiation from 137Cs, and the accuracy demonstrated was within 3% (1 σ).

Biopower, i.e. production of power using biomass, has a tremendous potential to deliver CO2 neutral energy in the Nordic countries. This paper analyses the evolution of a biopower innovation system in Sweden where particular attention is given to current driving forces and obstacles to a large-scale diffusion of biopower. In the 1980s and 1990s, this innovation system went through a successful ‘formative phase’ in which all the constituent components of the ‘infant’ system emerged. With the introduction of green certificates and emission trading rights, incentives were created that were large enough to shift the system into a ‘growth phase’, where the extensive district heating system and voluminous production in the paper and pulp industry can be used to produce power on a large scale in CHP plants. An investment boom is now underway and output of biopower is rapidly growing. Yet, there are still substantial obstacles to a realisation of the full potential of biopower. Three of these are outlined and an associated set of policy challenges are specified.

International efforts are taken to avoid the proliferation of material and technologies that may lead to the development of nuclear weapons. These activities are called safeguards and involve inspections of spent nuclear fuel at nuclear power plants and storage facilities. At these inspections, various measuring techniques are employed for verifying the presence and identity of spent nuclear fuel assemblies. However, a fuel assembly contains about 100–300 fuel rods and techniques are also required for verifying that no individual fuel rods have been removed from the assembly. For this purpose, a non-destructive tomographic measurement technique for spent-fuel assemblies is being developed at Uppsala University, based on single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). The technique utilizes the γ-ray emission from spent fuel. The first step of the methodology is the recording of the γ-ray flux distribution in a large number of positions around the fuel assembly, using γ-ray detectors attached to a collimator system. In the following step, a cross-sectional image of the source distribution in the fuel assembly is reconstructed. Because the fuel rods are highly activated during reactor operation, and because they are stored in water with practically no radioactive content, they appear very clearly in this type of image. The technique has earlier been used for determining the power distribution in fuel assemblies [S. Jacobsson Svard, A. Hakansson, et al., Nucl. Technol. 151(1) (2005) 70. [1] ]. The images obtained in those measurements show that the technique also has great potential for safeguards’ application. In the on-going development of the technique specifically for safeguards, image analysis plays an important role. Some crucial points in the analysis are the identification and positioning of the assembly in the image and also the definition of the background activity level. Finally, proper criteria have to be set for confidently stating if a fuel rod would be considered to be missing.

Neutron flux monitoring systems form an integral part of the design of a Generation IV sodium cooled fast reactor. Diverse possibilities of detector systems have to be investigated with respect to practicality and feasibility according to the detection parameters. In this paper, we demonstrate the feasibility of using self powered neutron detectors as in-core detectors in fast reactors for detecting local changes in the neutron flux distribution. We show that the gamma contribution from fission products decay and activation of structural materials and sodium is very small compared to the fission gammas. Thus, it is possible for the in-core SPND signal to follow changes in local neutron flux as they are proportional to each other. This implies that the signal from an in-core SPND can provide dynamic information on the neutron flux perturbations occuring inside the reactor core.

This paper presents a framework for guiding policy-makers intervening in emerging innovation systems in 'catching-up' countries. The process whereby the central policy issues are identified rests on the notion that there are seven key processes, or 'functions', involved in the formation of such systems and that these processes can be empirically studied. A 'functional approach' is argued to be helpful in finding 'system weaknesses' that can act as focusing mechanisms for policy-makers. An illustrative case from Germany is followed by an analysis of emerging innovation systems in catching-up countries, in particular Brazil, Korea and Chile. This is an electronic version of an article published in:Staffan Jacobsson and Anna Bergek, A framework for guiding policy makers intervening in emerging innovation systems in 'catching up' countries, 2007, European Journal of Development Research, (18), 4, 687-707.European Journal of Development Research is available online at informaworldTM: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09578810601094902Copyright: Taylor & Francishttp://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/default.asp

This paper identifies and critically discusses the validity of a set of dominant beliefs in the current debate on Swedish science policy. The beliefs, which centre on academic research, include important assumptions about the scale, orientation, functions, control and funding of such work. We argue that these beliefs are either wrong or stand on very shaky empirical ground. Mistaken beliefs are dangerous in that they may lead policy-makers to define the key issues wrongly, or to ignore some of them. By formulating alternative beliefs, we point to a set of policy issues that need to be addressed, and urgently. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

To arrest climate change, a transition to a low-carbon economy must take place quite rapidly, within a century at most. Thus, the rate of diffusion of new technologies such as those for the generation of electricity from renewable energy sources becomes a central issue. This article explores the reasons for the particularly rapid spread of two such technologies in Germany, wind turbines and solar cells. We trace this diffusion to the nature of the policy instruments employed and to the political process which led to the adoption of these instruments. The analysis demonstrates how the regulatory framework is formed in a ‘battle over institutions’ where the German parliament, informed and supported by an advocacy coalition of growing strength, backed support policies for renewables sourced electricity against often reluctant governments and the opposition from nuclear and coal interests. It also demonstrates that this major political and environmental achievement carries a modest price if we consider total costs to society, i.e. including both subsidies to coal and the negative external economies of coal.

A need for validation of modern production codes with respect to the calculated pin-power distribution has been recognized. A nondestructive experimental method for such validation has been developed based on a tomographic technique. The gamma-ray flux distribution is recorded in each axial node of the fuel assembly separately, whereby the relative rod-by-rod content of the fission product 140Ba is determined. Measurements indicate that 1 to 2% accuracy (1 sigma) is achievable.A device has been constructed for in-pool measurements at reactor sites. The applicability has been demonstrated in measurements at the Swedish boiling water reactor (BWR) Forsmark 2 on irradiated fuel with a cooling time of 4 to 5 weeks. Data from the production code POLCA-7 have been compared to measured rod-by-rod contents of 140Ba. An agreement of 3.1% (1 sigma) has been demonstrated.It is estimated that measurements can be performed on a complete BWR assembly in 25 axial nodes within an 8-h work shift. As compared to the conventional method, involving gamma scanning of individual fuel rods, this method does not require the fuel to be disassembled nor does the fuel channel have to be removed. The cost per measured fuel rod is estimated to be an order of magnitude lower than the conventional method.

Sweden is perceived to be top ranking. and a 'role model', in terms of its volume of academic R&D. This perception is based on analyses using two standard indicators. We assess the validity of these and argue that institutional features skew the result in favour of a high ranking. Swedish academic R&D is more appropriately characterised as average. or below average. in terms of input and above average in terms of output. Science policy makers need to acknowledge this and devise policies that strengthen rather than threaten the functioning of an efficient system. (C) 2004 Published by Elsevier B.V.

We trace the relationship between changes in the supply of capabilities from Chalmers University of Technology and the extent and nature of technology-based entrepreneurship in the region of Western Sweden in the period 1975-1993. Changes in the supply of capabilities are approximated by changes in volumes and orientation of graduates at MSc and PhD levels. The knowledge base of 539 new technology-based firms is specified in terms of the different programmes at Chalmers (e.g. mechanical engineering). We argue that the responsiveness to the growing technological opportunities in electronics and computer engineering was weak and that, as a consequence, the volume of technology-based entrepreneurship was probably not only unduly limited but also skewed towards mechanical engineering, the ‘traditional’ area of specialisation in the region. (Less)

Innovation systems can be defined in a variety of ways: they can be national, regional, sectoral, or technological. They all involve the creation, diffusion, and use of knowledge. Systems consist of components, relationships among these, and their characteristics or attributes. The focus of this paper is on the analytical and methodological issues arising from various system concepts. There are three issues that stand out as problematic. First, what is the appropriate level of analysis for the purpose at hand? It matters, for example, whether we are interested in a certain technology, product, set of related products, a competence bloc, a particular cluster of activities or firms, or the science and technology base generally—and for what geographic area, as well as for what time period. The choice of components and system boundaries depends on this, as does the type of interaction among components to be analyzed. The attributes or features of the system components that come into focus also depend on the choice of level of analysis. The second and closely related issue is how to determine the population, i.e. delineate the system and identify the actors and/or components. What are the key relationships that need to be captured so that the important interaction takes place within the system rather than outside? The third issue is how to measure the performance of the system. What is to be measured, and how can performance be measured at the system level rather than at component level? © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

The purpose of this paper is to make a selective and interpretative review of the literature on university-industry relations, with the aim of identifying questions for further research. We provide the 'bare bones' of an analytical framework for approaching university-industry relations, where we conceptualise the role of universities in the innovation and diffusion process as one of the providers of a range of functions in an innovation system. We proceed by addressing three themes with a strong bearing on science and educational policy, focussing on Sweden. These are: (1) how to measure the size and performance of academic research, (2) how to assess the value of academic R&D, and (3) how to improve the value of the academic sector where we deal with the issue of 'responsiveness'. We conclude by specifying a set of questions that need further research.