Search

Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder featuring complex aberrations in the structure, wiring, and chemistry of multiple neuronal systems. The abnormal developmental trajectory of the brain appears to be established during gestation, long before clinical symptoms of the disease appear in early adult life. Many genes are associated with schizophrenia, however, altered expression of no one gene has been shown to be present in a majority of schizophrenia patients. How does altered expression of such a variety of genes lead to the complex set of abnormalities observed in the schizophrenic brain? We hypothesize that the protein products of these genes converge on common neurodevelopmental pathways that affect the development of multiple neural circuits and neurotransmitter systems. One such neurodevelopmental pathway is Integrative Nuclear FGFR1 Signaling (INFS). INFS integrates diverse neurogenic signals that direct the postmitotic development of embryonic stem cells, neural progenitors and immature neurons, by direct gene reprogramming. Additionally, FGFR1 and its partner proteins link multiple upstream pathways in which schizophrenia-linked genes are known to function and interact directly with those genes. A th-fgfr1(tk-) transgenic mouse with impaired FGF receptor signaling establishes a number of important characteristics that mimic human schizophrenia - a neurodevelopmental origin, anatomical abnormalities at birth, a delayed onset of behavioral symptoms, deficits across multiple domains of the disorder and symptom improvement with typical and atypical antipsychotics, 5-HT antagonists, and nicotinic receptor agonists. Our research suggests that altered FGF receptor signaling plays a central role in the developmental abnormalities underlying schizophrenia and that nicotinic agonists are an effective class of compounds for the treatment of schizophrenia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetic and post mortem evidence has implicated the α7 neuronal nicotinic receptor (NNR) in the etiology of schizophrenia and related disorders. In schizophrenia, enhanced subcortical dopamine (DA) correlates with positive and cognitive of the disease, including impairments in sensorimotor gating. We measured the levels of extracellular DA and DA metabolites during an acoustic test session of prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the startle response, a measure of sensorimotor gating, by microdialysis and HPLC-EC in a transgenic mouse model of schizophrenia. In th-fgfr1(tk-) mice, blockade of fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) signaling during development in catecholaminergic neurons results in reduced size and density of midbrain DA neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) and ventral tegmental area (VTA). These mice displayed reduced PPI and enhanced startle response relative to control mice as well as a potentiation of DA release in the dorsal striatum during a 30 minute PPI test session. Acute administration of a partial α7 NNR agonist TC-7020 (1.0 mg/kg) normalized PPI and startle deficits and attenuated increases of DA release during acoustic PPI testing. These results provide direct evidence of elevated striatal dopaminergic transmission with impaired sensorimotor gating that may underlie cognitive and positive symptoms and motor deficits in schizophrenia and related disorders. Also, systemic targeting of alpha7 NNRs may ameliorate these deficits by functionally suppressing striatal DA activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As human progenitor cells differentiate into neurons, the activities of many genes change; these changes are maintained within a narrow range, referred to as genome homeostasis. This process, which alters the synchronization of the entire expressed genome, is distorted in neurodevelopmental diseases such as schizophrenia. The coordinated gene activity networks formed by altering sets of genes comprise recurring coordination modules, governed by the entropy-controlling action of nuclear FGFR1, known to be associated with DNA topology. These modules can be modeled as energy-transferring circuits, revealing that genome homeostasis is maintained by reducing oscillations (noise) in gene activity while allowing gene activity changes to be transmitted across networks; this occurs more readily in neuronal committed cells than in neural progenitors. These findings advance a model of an "entangled" global genome acting as a flexible, coordinated homeostatic system that responds to developmental signals, is governed by nuclear FGFR1, and is reprogrammed in disease.

Purpose: Paracrine activation of pro-fibrotic hedgehog (HH) signaling in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) results in stromal amplification that compromises tumor drug delivery, efficacy, and patient survival. Interdiction of HH-mediated tumor-stroma crosstalk with smoothened (SMO) inhibitors (SHHi) "primes" PDAC patient-derived xenograft (PDX) tumors for increased drug delivery by transiently increasing vascular patency/permeability, and thereby macromolecule delivery. However, patient tumor isolates vary in their responsiveness, and responders show co-induction of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). We aimed to identify the signal derangements responsible for EMT induction and reverse them and devise approaches to stratify SHHi-responsive tumors noninvasively based on clinically-quantifiable parameters., Experimental Design: Animals underwent diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance (DW-MR) imaging for measurement of intratumor diffusivity. In parallel, tissue-level deposition of nanoparticle probes was quantified as a marker of vascular permeability/perfusion. Transcriptomic and bioinformatic analysis was employed to investigate SHHi-induced gene reprogramming and identify key "nodes" responsible for EMT induction., Results: Multiple patient tumor isolates responded to short-term SHH inhibitor exposure with increased vascular patency and permeability, with proportionate increases in tumor diffusivity. Nonresponding PDXs did not. SHHi-treated tumors showed elevated FGF drive and distinctly higher nuclear localization of fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR1) in EMT-polarized tumor cells. Pan-FGFR inhibitor NVP-BGJ398 (Infigratinib) reversed the SHHi-induced EMT marker expression and nuclear FGFR1 accumulation without compromising the enhanced permeability effect., Conclusions: This dual-hit strategy of SMO and FGFR inhibition provides a clinically-translatable approach to compromise the profound impermeability of PDAC tumors. Furthermore, clinical deployment of DW-MR imaging could fulfill the essential clinical-translational requirement for patient stratification., (©2024 American Association for Cancer Research.)

The physiological origin of the aperiodic signal present in the electrophysiological recordings, called l/f neural noise, is unknown; nevertheless, it has been associated with health and disease. The power spectrum slope, -α in 1/f α , has been postulated to be related to the dynamic balance between excitation (E) and inhibition (I). Our study found that human cerebral organoids grown from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from Schizophrenia patients (SCZ) showed structural changes associated with altered elasticity compared to that of the normal cerebral organoids. Furthermore, mitochondrial drugs modulated the elasticity in SCZ that was found related to the changes in the spectral exponent. Therefore, we developed an electro-mechanical model that related the microtubular-actin tensegrity structure to the elasticity and the 1/f α noise. Model-based analysis showed that a decrease in the number and length of the constitutive elements in the tensegrity structure decreased its elasticity and made the spectral exponent more negative while thermal white noise will make α = 0.. Based on the microtubularactin model and the cross-talk in structural (elasticity) and functional (electrophysiology) response, aberrant mitochondrial dynamics in SCZ are postulated to be related to the deficits in mitochondrial-cytoskeletal interactions for long-range transport of mitochondria to support synaptic activity for E/I balance. Clinical Relevance-Our experimental data and modeling present a structure-function relationship between mechanical elasticity and electrophysiology of human cerebral organoids that differentiated SCZ patients from normal controls.

During the development of mouse embryonic stem cells (ESC) to neuronal committed cells (NCC), coordinated changes in the expression of 2851 genes take place, mediated by the nuclear form of FGFR1. In this paper, widespread differences are demonstrated in the ESC and NCC inter- and intra-chromosomal interactions, chromatin looping, the formation of CTCF- and nFGFR1-linked Topologically Associating Domains (TADs) on a genome-wide scale and in exemplary HoxA-D loci. The analysis centered on HoxA cluster shows that blocking FGFR1 disrupts the loop formation. FGFR1 binding and genome locales are predictive of the genome interactions; likewise, chromatin interactions along with nFGFR1 binding are predictive of the genome function and correlate with genome regulatory attributes and gene expression. This study advances a topologically integrated genome archipelago model that undergoes structural transformations through the formation of nFGFR1-associated TADs. The makeover of the TAD islands serves to recruit distinct ontogenic programs during the development of the ESC to NCC.

Homeostatic control of neuronal excitability by modulation of synaptic inhibition (I) and excitation (E) of the principal neurons is important during brain maturation. The fundamental features of in-utero brain development, including local synaptic E-I ratio and bioenergetics, can be modeled by cerebral organoids (CO) that have exhibited highly regular nested oscillatory network events. Therefore, we evaluated a 'Phase Zero' clinical study platform combining broadband Vis/near-infrared(NIR) spectroscopy and electrophysiology with studying E-I ratio based on the spectral exponent of local field potentials and bioenergetics based on the activity of mitochondrial Cytochrome-C Oxidase (CCO). We found a significant effect of the age of the healthy controls iPSC CO from 23 days to 3 months on the CCO activity (chi-square (2, N = 10) = 20, p = 4.5400e-05), and spectral exponent between 30-50 Hz (chi-square (2, N = 16) = 13.88, p = 0.001). Also, a significant effect of drugs, choline (CHO), idebenone (IDB), R-alpha-lipoic acid plus acetyl-L-carnitine (LCLA), was found on the CCO activity (chi-square (3, N = 10) = 25.44, p = 1.2492e-05), spectral exponent between 1 and 20 Hz (chi-square (3, N = 16) = 43.5, p = 1.9273e-09) and 30-50 Hz (chi-square (3, N = 16) = 23.47, p = 3.2148e-05) in 34 days old CO from schizophrenia (SCZ) patients iPSC. We present the feasibility of a multimodal approach, combining electrophysiology and broadband Vis-NIR spectroscopy, to monitor neurodevelopment in brain organoid models that can complement traditional drug design approaches to test clinically meaningful hypotheses.

Schizophrenia (SZ) is a neurodevelopmental genetic disorder in which maternal immune activation (MIA) and increased tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) may contribute. Previous studies using iPSC-derived cerebral organoids and neuronal cells demonstrated developmental malformation and transcriptional dysregulations, including TNF receptors and their signaling genes, common to SZ patients with diverse genetic backgrounds. In the present study, we examined the significance of the common TNF receptor dysregulations by transiently exposing cerebral organoids from embryonic stem cells (ESC) and from representative control and SZ patient iPSCs to TNF. In control iPSC organoids, TNF produced malformations qualitatively similar in, but generally less pronounced than, the malformations of the SZ iPSC-derived organoids. TNF and SZ alone disrupted subcortical rosettes and dispersed proliferating Ki67 + neural progenitor cells (NPC) from the organoid ventricular zone (VZ) into the cortical zone (CZ). In the CZ, the absence of large ramified pan-Neu + neurons coincided with loss of myelinated neurites despite increased cortical accumulation of O4 + oligodendrocytes. The number of calretinin + interneurons increased; however, they lacked the preferential parallel orientation to the organoid surface. SZ and SZ+TNF affected fine cortical and subcortical organoid structure by replacing cells with extracellular matrix (ECM)-like fibers The SZ condition increased developmental vulnerability to TNF, leading to more pronounced changes in NPC, pan-Neu + neurons, and interneurons. Both SZ- and TNF-induced malformations were associated with the loss of nuclear (n)FGFR1 form in the CZ and its upregulation in deep IZ regions, while in earlier studies blocking nFGFR1 reproduced cortical malformations observed in SZ. Computational analysis of ChiPseq and RNAseq datasets shows that nFGFR1 directly targets neurogenic, oligodendrogenic, cell migration, and ECM genes, and that the FGFR1-targeted TNF receptor and signaling genes are overexpressed in SZ NPC. Through these changes, the developing brain with the inherited SZ genome dysregulation may suffer increased vulnerability to TNF and thus, MIA., (Copyright © 2020 Benson, Powell, Liput, Dinham, Freedman, Ignatowski, Stachowiak and Stachowiak.)

In humans, pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) deficiency impairs brain energy metabolism by reducing the availability of the functional acetyl‑CoA pool. This "hypometabolic defect" results in congenital lactic acidosis and abnormalities of brain morphology and function, ranging from mild ataxia to profound psychomotor retardation. Our previous study showed reduction in total cell number and dendritic arbors in the cerebellar Purkinje cells in systemic PDC‑deficient mice. Phenylbutyrate has been shown to increase PDC activity in cultured fibroblasts from PDC‑deficient patients. Hence, we investigated the effects of postnatal (days 2‑35) phenylbutyrate administration on the cerebellar Purkinje cell population in PDC‑deficient female mice. Histological analyses of different regions of cerebellar cortex from the brain‑specific PDC‑deficient saline‑injected mice revealed statistically significant reduction in the Purkinje cell density and increased cell size of the individual Purkinje cell soma compared to control PDC‑normal, saline‑injected group. Administration of phenylbutyrate to control mice did not cause significant changes in the Purkinje cell density and cell size in the studied regions. In contrast, administration of phenylbutyrate variably lessened the ill effects of PDC deficiency on Purkinje cell populations in different areas of the cerebellum. Our results lend further support for the possible use of phenylbutyrate as a potential treatment for PDC deficiency.

Miniaturization of implantable devices is an important challenge for future brain-computer interface applications, and in particular for achieving precise neuron stimulation. For stimulation that utilizes light, i.e., optogenetics, the light propagation behavior and interaction at the nanoscale with elements within the neuron is an important factor that needs to be considered when designing the device. This paper analyzes the effect of light behavior for a single neuron stimulation and focuses on the impact from different cell shapes. Based on the Mie scattering theory, the paper analyzes how the shape of the soma and the nucleus contributes to the focusing effect resulting in an intensity increase, which ensures that neurons can assist in transferring light through the tissue toward the target cells. At the same time, this intensity increase can in turn also stimulate neighboring cells leading to interference within the neural circuits. This paper also analyzes the ideal placements of the device with respect to the angle and position within the cortex that can enable axonal biophoton communications, which can contain light within the cell to avoid the interference.

Stem cell-derived brain organoids replicate important stages of the prenatal human brain development and combined with the induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology offer an unprecedented model for investigating human neurological diseases including autism and microcephaly. We describe the history and birth of organoids and their application, focusing on cerebral organoids derived from embryonic stem cells and iPSCs. We discuss new insights into organoid-based model of schizophrenia and shed light on challenges and future applications of organoid-based disease model system. This review also suggests hitherto unrevealed potential applications of organoids in combining with new technologies such as nanophotonics/optogenomics for controlling brain development and atomic force microscopy for studying mechanical forces that shape the developing brain.

Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by complex aberrations in the structure, wiring, and chemistry of multiple neuronal systems. The abnormal developmental trajectory of the brain is established during gestation, long before clinical manifestation of the disease. Over 200 genes and even greater numbers of single nucleotide polymorphisms and copy number variations have been linked with schizophrenia. How does altered function of such a variety of genes lead to schizophrenia? We propose that the protein products of these altered genes converge on a common neurodevelopmental pathway responsible for the development of brain neural circuit and neurotransmitter systems. The results of a multichanneled investigation using induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSCs)- and embryonic stem cell (ESCs)-derived neuronal committed cells (NCCs) indicate an early (preneuronal) developmental-genomic etiology of schizophrenia and that the dysregulated developmental gene networks are common to genetically unrelated cases of schizophrenia. The results support a "watershed" mechanism in which mutations within diverse signaling pathways affect the common pan-ontogenic mechanism, integrative nuclear (n)FGFR1 signaling (INFS). Dysregulation of INFS in schizophrenia NCCs deconstructs coordinated gene networks and leads to formation of new networks by the dysregulated genes. This genome deprograming affects critical gene programs and pathways for neural development and functions. Studies show that the genomic deprograming reflect an altered nFGFR1-genome interactions and deregulation of miRNA genes by nFGFR1. In addition, changes in chromatin topology imposed by nFGFR1 may play a role in coordinate gene dysregulation in schizophrenia.

Studies of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from schizophrenia patients and control individuals revealed that the disorder is programmed at the preneuronal stage, involves a common dysregulated mRNA transcriptome, and identified Integrative Nuclear FGFR1 Signaling a common dysregulated mechanism. We used human embryonic stem cell (hESC) and iPSC-derived cerebral organoids from four controls and three schizophrenia patients to model the first trimester of in utero brain development. The schizophrenia organoids revealed an abnormal scattering of proliferating Ki67+ neural progenitor cells (NPCs) from the ventricular zone (VZ), throughout the intermediate (IZ) and cortical (CZ) zones. TBR1 pioneer neurons and reelin, which guides cortico-petal migration, were restricted from the schizophrenia cortex. The maturing neurons were abundantly developed in the subcortical regions, but were depleted from the schizophrenia cortex. The decreased intracortical connectivity was denoted by changes in the orientation and morphology of calretinin interneurons. In schizophrenia organoids, nuclear (n)FGFR1 was abundantly expressed by developing subcortical cells, but was depleted from the neuronal committed cells (NCCs) of the CZ. Transfection of dominant negative and constitutively active nFGFR1 caused widespread disruption of the neuro-ontogenic gene networks in hESC-derived NPCs and NCCs. The fgfr1 gene was the most prominent FGFR gene expressed in NPCs and NCCs, and blocking with PD173074 reproduced both the loss of nFGFR1 and cortical neuronal maturation in hESC cerebral organoids. We report for the first time, progression of the cortical malformation in schizophrenia and link it to altered FGFR1 signaling. Targeting INFS may offer a preventive treatment of schizophrenia.

The watershed-hypothesis of schizophrenia asserts that over 200 different mutations dysregulate distinct pathways that converge on an unspecified common mechanism(s) that controls disease ontogeny. Consistent with this hypothesis, our RNA-sequencing of neuron committed cells (NCCs) differentiated from established iPSCs of 4 schizophrenia patients and 4 control subjects uncovered a dysregulated transcriptome of 1349 mRNAs common to all patients. Data reveals a global dysregulation of developmental genome, deconstruction of coordinated mRNA networks, and the formation of aberrant, new coordinated mRNA networks indicating a concerted action of the responsible factor(s). Sequencing of miRNA transcriptomes demonstrated an overexpression of 16 miRNAs and deconstruction of interactive miRNA-mRNA networks in schizophrenia NCCs. ChiPseq revealed that the nuclear (n) form of FGFR1, a pan-ontogenic regulator, is overexpressed in schizophrenia NCCs and overtargets dysregulated mRNA and miRNA genes. The nFGFR1 targeted 54% of all human gene promoters and 84.4% of schizophrenia dysregulated genes. The upregulated genes reside within major developmental pathways that control neurogenesis and neuron formation, whereas downregulated genes are involved in oligodendrogenesis. Our results indicate (i) an early (preneuronal) genomic etiology of schizophrenia, (ii) dysregulated genes and new coordinated gene networks are common to unrelated cases of schizophrenia, (iii) gene dysregulations are accompanied by increased nFGFR1-genome interactions, and (iv) modeling of increased nFGFR1 by an overexpression of a nFGFR1 lead to up or downregulation of selected genes as observed in schizophrenia NCCs. Together our results designate nFGFR1 signaling as a potential common dysregulated mechanism in investigated patients and potential therapeutic target in schizophrenia., (Copyright © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Genetic experiments have positioned the fgfr1 gene at the top of the gene hierarchy that governs gastrulation, as well as the subsequent development of the major body axes, nervous system, muscles, and bones, by affecting downstream genes that control the cell cycle, pluripotency, and differentiation, as well as microRNAs. Studies show that this regulation is executed by a single protein, the nuclear isoform of FGFR1 (nFGFR1), which integrates signals from development-initiating factors, such as retinoic acid (RA), and operates at the interface of genomic and epigenomic information. nFGFR1 cooperates with a multitude of transcriptional factors (TFs), and targets thousands of genes encoding for mRNAs, as well as miRNAs in top ontogenic networks. nFGFR1 binds to the promoters of ancient proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, in addition to binding to metazoan morphogens that delineate body axes, and construct the nervous system, as well as mesodermal and endodermal tissues. The discovery of pan-ontogenic gene programming by integrative nuclear FGFR1 signaling (INFS) impacts our understanding of ontogeny, as well as developmental pathologies, and holds new promise for reconstructive medicine, and cancer therapy., (© 2016 The Authors. Journal of Cellular Physiology published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

A universal signaling module has been described which utilizes the nuclear form of Fibroblast growth Factor Receptor 1 (FGFR1) in a central role directing the post-mitotic development of neural cells through coordinated gene expression. In this review, we discuss in detail the current knowledge of FGFR1 nuclear interaction partners in three scenarios: (i) Engagement of FGFR1 in neuronal stem cells and regulation of neuronal differentiation; (ii) interaction with the orphan receptor Nurr1 in development of mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons; (iii) modulation of nuclear FGFR1 interactions downstream of nerve growth factor (NGF) signaling. These coalitions demonstrate the versatility of non-canonical, nuclear tyrosine kinase signaling in diverse cellular differentiation programs of neurons., (© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

In this review we summarize the current understanding of a novel integrative function of Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor-1 (FGFR1) and its partner CREB Binding Protein (CBP) acting as a nuclear regulatory complex. Nuclear FGFR1 and CBP interact with and regulate numerous genes on various chromosomes. FGFR1 dynamic oscillatory interactions with chromatin and with specific genes, underwrites gene regulation mediated by diverse developmental signals. Integrative Nuclear FGFR1 Signaling (INFS) effects the differentiation of stem cells and neural progenitor cells via the gene-controlling Feed-Forward-And-Gate mechanism. Nuclear accumulation of FGFR1 occurs in numerous cell types and disruption of INFS may play an important role in developmental disorders such as schizophrenia, and in metastatic diseases such as cancer. Enhancement of INFS may be used to coordinate the gene regulation needed to activate cell differentiation for regenerative purposes or to provide interruption of cancer stem cell proliferation., (© 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Genetic studies have placed the Fgfr1 gene at the top of major ontogenic pathways that enable gastrulation, tissue development and organogenesis. Using genome-wide sequencing and loss and gain of function experiments the present investigation reveals a mechanism that underlies global and direct gene regulation by the nuclear form of FGFR1, ensuring that pluripotent Embryonic Stem Cells differentiate into Neuronal Cells in response to Retinoic Acid. Nuclear FGFR1, both alone and with its partner nuclear receptors RXR and Nur77, targets thousands of active genes and controls the expression of pluripotency, homeobox, neuronal and mesodermal genes. Nuclear FGFR1 targets genes in developmental pathways represented by Wnt/β-catenin, CREB, BMP, the cell cycle and cancer-related TP53 pathway, neuroectodermal and mesodermal programing networks, axonal growth and synaptic plasticity pathways. Nuclear FGFR1 targets the consensus sequences of transcription factors known to engage CREB-binding protein, a common coregulator of transcription and established binding partner of nuclear FGFR1. This investigation reveals the role of nuclear FGFR1 as a global genomic programmer of cell, neural and muscle development.

Individuals with schizophrenia smoke at high frequency relative to the general population. Despite the harmful effects of cigarette smoking, smoking among schizophrenic patients improves cognitive impairments not addressed or worsened by common neuroleptics. Varenicline, a nonselective neuronal nicotinic receptor (NNR) agonist and full agonist of 5-HT3A receptors, helps reduce smoking among schizophrenic patients. To determine whether varenicline also improves a cognitive symptom of schizophrenia, namely, impaired sensory gating, a transgenic mouse with schizophrenia, th-fgfr1(tk-), was used. Varenicline dose-dependently increased prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the startle response, a measure of sensory gating, in th-fgfr1(tk-) mice and normalized PPI deficits relative to nontransgenic controls. With the highest dose (10 mg/kg), however, there was a robust elevation of PPI and startle response, as well as reduced exploratory behavior in the open field and elevated plus maze. Pretreatment with the nonspecific NNR antagonist mecamylamine attenuated the exaggerated PPI response and, similar to the 5-HT3A receptor antagonist ondansetron, it prevented the reduction in exploratory behavior. Collectively, these results indicate that varenicline at low-to-moderate doses may be beneficial against impaired sensory gating in schizophrenia; however, higher doses may induce anxiogenic effects, which can be prevented with antagonists of NNRs or 5-HT3A receptors.

Nuclear bodies are large sub-nuclear structures composed of RNA and protein molecules. The Survival of Motor Neuron (SMN) protein localizes to Cajal bodies (CBs) and nuclear gems. Diminished cellular concentration of SMN is associated with the neurodegenerative disease Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA). How nuclear body architecture and its structural components influence neuronal differentiation remains elusive. In this study, we analyzed the effects of SMN and two of its interaction partners in cellular models of neuronal differentiation. The nuclear 23 kDa isoform of Fibroblast Growth Factor - 2 (FGF-2(23)) is one of these interacting proteins - and was previously observed to influence nuclear bodies by destabilizing nuclear gems and mobilizing SMN from Cajal bodies (CBs). Here we demonstrate that FGF-2(23) blocks SMN-promoted neurite outgrowth, and also show that SMN disrupts FGF-2(23)-dependent transcription. Our results indicate that FGF-2(23) and SMN form an inactive complex that interferes with neuronal differentiation by mutually antagonizing nuclear functions. Coilin is another nuclear SMN binding partner and a marker protein for Cajal bodies (CBs). In addition, coilin is essential for CB function in maturation of small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs). The role of coilin outside of Cajal bodies and its putative impacts in tissue differentiation are poorly defined. The present study shows that protein levels of nucleoplasmic coilin outside of CBs decrease during neuronal differentiation. Overexpression of coilin has an inhibitory effect on neurite outgrowth. Furthermore, we find that nucleoplasmic coilin inhibits neurite outgrowth independent of SMN binding revealing a new function for coilin in neuronal differentiation.

Fetal development in an obese maternal intrauterine environment has been shown to predispose the offspring for a number of metabolic disorders in later life. The observation that a large percentage of women of child-bearing age in the US are overweight/obese during pregnancy is therefore a source of concern. A high fat (HF) diet-induced obesity in female rats has been used as a model for maternal obesity. The objective of this study was to determine cellular development in brains of term fetuses of obese rats fed a HF diet from the time of weaning. Fetal brains were dissected out on gestational day 21 and processed for immunohistochemical analysis in the hypothalamic as well as extra-hypothalamic regions. The major observation of this study is that fetal development in the obese HF female rat induced several alterations in the HF fetal brain. Marked increases were observed in orexigenic signaling and a significant decrease was observed for anorexigenic signaling in the vicinity of the 3rd ventricle in HF brains. Additionally, our results indicated diminished migration and maturation of stem-like cells in the 3rd ventricular region as well as in the brain cortex. The results from the present study indicate developmental alterations in the hypothalamic and extra-hypothalamic regions in the HF fetal brain suggestive of a predisposition for the development of obesity and possibly neurodevelopmental abnormalities in the offspring.

Reactivation of neurogenesis by endogenous Neural Stem/Progenitor Cells (NS/PC) in the adult brain or spinal cord holds the key for treatment of CNS injuries as well as neurodegenerative disorders, which are major healthcare issues for the world's aging population. Recent studies show that targeting the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7nAChR) with a specific TC-7020 agonist inhibits proliferation and stimulates neuronal differentiation of NS/PC in subventricular zone (SVZ) in the adult mouse brain. TC-7020-induced neuronogenesis is observed in different brain regions, including: (1) βIII Tubulin-expressing cortical neurons, (2) calretinin expressing hippocampal neurons and (3) cells in substantia nigra (SN) expressing predopaminergic Nurr1+phenotype. Reactivation of developmental integrative nuclear FGFR1 signaling (INFS), via gene transfection reinstates neurogenesis in the adult brain by promoting neuronal differentiation of brain NS/PC. TC-7020 neuronogenic effect is associated with a robust accumulation of endogenous FGFR1 in the nuclei of differentiating cells. Furthermore, direct in vitro stimulation of neural stem/progenitor cells with α7nAChR agonist activates INFS and neuronal-like differentiation and activation of neuronal genes. The α7nAChR upregulation of early neuronal βIII-Tubulin gene involves neurogenic FGFR1-Nur signaling and direct FGFR1 interaction with the gene promoter. The reactivation of developmental INFS and neurogenesis in adult brain by the α7nAChR agonist may offer new strategy to treat brain injuries, neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental diseases., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopamine (DA) system underlies the motor deficits in Parkinson's disease (PD). In recent years, epidemiological reports that smokers have lower incidences of PD have brought attention to the nicotinic acetylcholine system as a potential target for novel therapeutics. Nicotine, an agonist of neuronal nicotinic receptors (NNRs), modulates functions relevant to PD via stimulation of dopaminergic transmission in the nigrostriatal pathway, particularly via activation of α6β2* and α4β2* NNRs. Recently, reduced support of DA neurons by neurotrophic growth factors has been described in PD. Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) is critical for the development and protection of adult DA neurons. In FGF-2 knockout mice and the related th-fgfr1(tk-) mouse model there is heightened sensitivity to DA neuronal oxidative neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). In the present study, FGF-deficient transgenic mice th-fgfr1(tk-) were used to analyze the effects of novel full (TC-8831) and partial (TC-8581) agonists of β2-containing nicotinic receptors on impaired motor behavior following unilateral 6-OHDA lesions. The lesions generated spontaneous (drug-naïve) turning asymmetries that correlated exponentially with the depletion of DA biomarkers in the lesioned striata. These mice also exhibited a reduced capacity to remain on the accelerating rotarod. Oral administration of TC-8831, an NNR agonist with high specificity for β2 subunits and a full agonist at producing DA release from striatal synaptosomes, attenuated unidirectional turning and improved motor coordination. In contrast, partial β2 NNR agonist TC-8581 had no effect on behaviors in this model. This study demonstrates the potential of NNR targeting-compounds to facilitate motor function in PD., (© 2013. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Reactivation of endogenous neurogenesis in the adult brain or spinal cord holds the key for treatment of central nervous system injuries and neurodegenerative disorders, which are major health care issues for the world's aging population. We have previously shown that activation of developmental integrative nuclear fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) signaling (INFS), via gene transfection, reactivates neurogenesis in the adult brain by promoting neuronal differentiation of brain neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/PCs). In the present study, we report that targeting the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7nAChRs) with a specific TC-7020 agonist led to a robust accumulation of endogenous FGFR1 in the cell nucleus. Nuclear FGFR1 accumulation was accompanied by an inhibition of proliferation of NS/PCs in the subventricular zone (SVZ) and by the generation of new neurons. Neuronal differentiation was observed in different regions of the adult mouse brain, including (a) βIII-Tubulin-expressing cortical neurons, (b) calretinin-expressing hippocampal neurons, and (c) cells in substantia nigra expressing the predopaminergic Nurr1+ phenotype. Furthermore, we showed that in vitro stimulation of neural stem/progenitor cells with α7nAChR agonist directly activated INFS and neuronal-like differentiation. TC-7020 stimulation of the βIII-Tubulin gene was accompanied by increased binding of FGFR1, CREB binding protein, and RNA polymerase II to a Nur77 targeted promoter region. TC-7020 augmented Nur77-dependent activation of nerve growth factor inducible-B protein responsive element, indicating that α7nAChR upregulation of βIII-Tubulin involves neurogenic FGFR1-Nur signaling. The reactivation of INFS and neurogenesis in adult brain by the α7nAChR agonist may offer a new strategy to treat brain injuries, neurodegenerative diseases, and neurodevelopmental diseases.

Nerve growth factor (NGF) is the founding member of the polypeptide neurotrophin family responsible for neuronal differentiation. To determine whether the effects of NGF rely upon novel Integrative Nuclear FGF Receptor-1 (FGFR1) Signaling (INFS) we utilized the PC12 clonal cell line, a long-standing benchmark model of sympathetic neuronal differentiation. We demonstrate that NGF increases expression of the fgfr1 gene and promotes trafficking of FGFR1 protein from cytoplasm to nucleus by inhibiting FGFR1 nuclear export. Nuclear-targeted dominant negative FGFR1 antagonizes NGF-induced neurite outgrowth, doublecortin (dcx) expression and activation of the tyrosine hydroxylase (th) gene promoter, while active constitutive nuclear FGFR1 mimics the effects of NGF. NGF increases the expression of dcx, th, βIII tubulin, nurr1 and nur77, fgfr1and fibroblast growth factor-2 (fgf-2) genes, while enhancing binding of FGFR1and Nur77/Nurr1 to those genes. NGF activates transcription from isolated NurRE and NBRE motifs. Nuclear FGFR1 transduces NGF activation of the Nur dimer and raises basal activity of the Nur monomer. Cooperation of nuclear FGFR1 with Nur77/Nurr1 in NGF signaling expands the integrative functions of INFS to include NGF, the first discovered pluripotent neurotrophic factor.

Reduced levels of survival of motoneuron (SMN) protein lead to spinal muscular atrophy, but it is still unknown how SMN protects motoneurons in the spinal cord against degeneration. In the nucleus, SMN is associated with two types of nuclear bodies denoted as gems and Cajal bodies (CBs). The 23 kDa isoform of fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2(23)) is a nuclear protein that binds to SMN and destabilizes the SMN-Gemin2 complex. In the present study, we show that FGF-2(23) depletes SMN from CBs without affecting their general structure. FRAP analysis of SMN-EGFP in CBs demonstrated that the majority of SMN in CBs remained mobile and allowed quantification of fast, slow and immobile nuclear SMN populations. The potential for SMN release was confirmed by in vivo photoconversion of SMN-Dendra2, indicating that CBs concentrate immobile SMN that could have a specialized function in CBs. FGF-2(23) accelerated SMN release from CBs, accompanied by a conversion of immobile SMN into a mobile population. Furthermore, FGF-2(23) caused snRNP accumulation in CBs. We propose a model in which Cajal bodies store immobile SMN that can be mobilized by its nuclear interaction partner FGF-2(23), leading to U4 snRNP accumulation in CBs, indicating a role for immobile SMN in tri-snRNP assembly.

Unlabelled: Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex (PDC) deficiency is an inborn error of pyruvate metabolism causing a variety of neurologic manifestations. Systematic analyses of development of affected brain structures and the cellular processes responsible for their impairment have not been performed due to the lack of an animal model for PDC deficiency., Methods: In the present study we investigated a murine model of systemic PDC deficiency by interrupting the X-linked Pdha1 gene encoding the α subunit of PDH to study its role on brain development and behavioral studies., Results: Male embryos died prenatally but heterozygous females were born. PDC activity was reduced in the brain and other tissues in female progeny compared to age-matched control females. Immunohistochemical analysis of several brain regions showed that approximately 40% of cells were PDH(-). The oxidation of glucose to CO2 and incorporation of glucose-carbon into fatty acids were reduced in brain slices from 15 day-old PDC-deficient females. Histological analyses showed alterations in several structures in white and gray matters in 35 day-old PDC-deficient females. Reduction in total cell number and reduced dendritic arbors in Purkinje neurons were observed in PDC-deficient females. Furthermore, cell proliferation, migration and differentiation into neurons by newly generated cells were reduced in the affected females during pre- and postnatal periods. PDC-deficient mice had normal locomotor activity in a novel environment but displayed decreased startle responses to loud noises and there was evidence of abnormal pre-pulse inhibition of the startle reflex., Conclusions: The results show that a reduction in glucose metabolism resulting in deficit in energy production and fatty acid biosynthesis impairs cellular differentiation and brain development in PDC-deficient mice.

FGF Receptor-1 (FGFR1), a membrane-targeted protein, is also involved in independent direct nuclear signaling. We show that nuclear accumulation of FGFR1 is a common response to retinoic acid (RA) in pluripotent embryonic stem cells (ESC) and neural progenitors and is both necessary and sufficient for neuronal-like differentiation and accompanying neuritic outgrowth. Dominant negative nuclear FGFR1, which lacks the tyrosine kinase domain, prevents RA-induced differentiation while full-length nuclear FGFR1 elicits differentiation in the absence of RA. Immunoprecipitation and GST assays demonstrate that FGFR1 interacts with RXR, RAR and their Nur77 and Nurr1 partners. Conditions that promote these interactions decrease the mobility of nuclear FGFR1 and RXR in live cells. RXR and FGFR1 co-associate with 5'-Fluorouridine-labeled transcription sites and with RA Responsive Elements (RARE). RA activation of neuronal (tyrosine hydroxylase) and neurogenic (fgf-2 and fgfr1) genes is accompanied by increased FGFR1, Nur, and histone H3.3 binding to their regulatory sequences. Reporter-gene assays show synergistic activations of RARE, NBRE, and NurRE by FGFR1, RAR/RXR, and Nurs. As shown for mESC differentiation, FGFR1 mediates gene activation by RA and augments transcription in the absence of RA. Cooperation of FGFR1 with RXR/RAR and Nurs at targeted genomic sequences offers a new mechanism in developmental gene regulation., (Copyright © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) is a neurotrophic factor participating in regulation of proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis and neuroprotection in the central nervous system. With regard to dopaminergic (DA) neurons of substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc), which degenerate in Parkinson's disease, FGF-2 improves survival of mature DA neurons in vivo and regulates expansion of DA progenitors in vitro. To address the physiological role of FGF-2 in SNpc development, embryonic (E14.5), newborn (P0) and juvenile (P28) FGF-2-deficient mice were investigated. Stereological quantification of DA neurons identified normal numbers in the ventral tegmental area, whereas the SNpc of FGF-2-deficient mice displayed a 35% increase of DA neurons at P0 and P28, but not at earlier stage E14.5. Examination of DA marker gene expression by quantitative RT-PCR and in situ hybridization revealed a normal patterning of embryonic ventral mesencephalon. However, an increase of proliferating Lmx1a DA progenitors in the subventricular zone of the ventral mesencephalon of FGF-2-deficient embryos indicated altered cell cycle progression of neuronal progenitors. Increased levels of nuclear FgfR1 in E14.5 FGF-2-deficient mice suggest alterations of integrative nuclear FgfR1 signaling (INFS). In summary, FGF-2 restricts SNpc DA neurogenesis in vivo during late stages of embryonic development., (© 2012 The Authors. Journal of Neurochemistry © 2012 International Society for Neurochemistry.)

Experiments in mice deficient for Nurr1 or expressing the dominant-negative FGF receptor (FGFR) identified orphan nuclear receptor Nurr1 and FGFR1 as essential factors in development of mesencephalic dopaminergic (mDA) neurons. FGFR1 affects brain cell development by two distinct mechanisms. Activation of cell surface FGFR1 by secreted FGFs stimulates proliferation of neural progenitor cells, whereas direct integrative nuclear FGFR1 signaling (INFS) is associated with an exit from the cell cycle and neuronal differentiation. Both Nurr1 and INFS activate expression of neuronal genes, such as tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), which is the rate-limiting enzyme in dopamine synthesis. Here, we show that nuclear FGFR1 and Nurr1 are expressed in the nuclei of developing TH-positive cells in the embryonic ventral midbrain. Both nuclear receptors were effectively co-immunoprecipitated from the ventral midbrain of FGF-2-deficient embryonic mice, which previously showed an increase of mDA neurons and enhanced nuclear FGFR1 accumulation. Immunoprecipitation and co-localization experiments showed the presence of Nurr1 and FGFR1 in common nuclear protein complexes. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching and chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments demonstrated the Nurr1-mediated shift of nuclear FGFR1-EGFP mobility toward a transcriptionally active population and that both Nurr1 and FGFR1 bind to a common region in the TH gene promoter. Furthermore, nuclear FGFR1 or its 23-kDa FGF-2 ligand (FGF-2(23)) enhances Nurr1-dependent activation of the TH gene promoter. Transcriptional cooperation of FGFR1 with Nurr1 was confirmed on isolated Nurr1-binding elements. The proposed INFS/Nurr1 nuclear partnership provides a novel mechanism for TH gene regulation in mDA neurons and a potential therapeutic target in neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders.

The long prevailing hypothesis of schizophrenia pathogenesis implicates dopaminergic systems in the mesolimbic pathways as responsible for the positive symptoms of schizophrenia (hallucinations and delusions) and those in the mesocortical pathway as contributing to the negative symptoms (e.g., social disconnection, flattened affect and anhedonia). Several challenges to the dopamine hypothesis and the proposal of an alternative hypothesis implicating glutamate have provided additional support for the development of non-dopaminergic drugs for the management of schizophrenia symptomatology. Furthermore, preclinical and clinical evidence of alpha7 neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-mediated benefits in the triad of positive symptoms, negative symptoms and cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia, as well as the genetic linkage of this receptor to the disease, have added another level of complexity. Thus schizophrenia is increasingly believed to involve multi-neurotransmitter deficits, all of which may contribute to altered dopaminergic tone in the mesolimbic, mesocortical and other areas of the brain. In this paper we provide a model that reconciles the dopamine, glutamate and alpha7 cholinergic etiopathogenesis and is consistent with the clinical benefit derived from therapies targeted to these individual pathways., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A number of hypotheses have been put forth to explain the underlying abnormalities of schizophrenia. The widely held dopamine hypothesis suggests that positive symptoms are related to elevated subcortical dopamine transmission and that negative symptoms and cognitive impairments are associated with decreased cortical dopamine function. However, recent evidence suggests broader involvement of serotonergic, glutamatergic and other neurotransmitter systems and a growing body of evidence supports a role for nicotinic cholinergic systems. Based on post-mortem studies, there is a decreased density of neuronal nicotinic receptors (NNRs), especially the alpha7 NNR subtype, in the brains of schizophrenics. The alpha7 NNR subtype is the most abundant in the mammalian brain and has been shown to modulate multiple neuronal pathways that are compromised in schizophrenia, including dopaminergic, serotonergic, glutamatergic and GABAergic pathways. Familial linkage studies have associated regions of chromosome 15, which contains the alpha7 NNR gene, with schizophrenia and polymorphisms have been described in the promoter region of the alpha7 NNR gene. Observations from both animal and human studies that alpha7 NNR agonists can improve positive and negative symptoms as well as cognition to varying degrees further support the involvement of this receptor subtype in multiple deficits of schizophrenia and suggest that it may be feasible to develop novel therapies targeting alpha7 NNRs to treat all domains of the disease.

A growing body of evidence suggests that the alpha7 neuronal nicotinic receptor (NNR) subtype is an important target for the development of novel therapies to treat schizophrenia, offering the possibility to address not only the positive but also the cognitive and negative symptoms associated with the disease. In order to probe the relationship of alpha7 function to relevant behavioral correlates we employed TC-5619, a novel selective agonist for the alpha7 NNR subtype. TC-5619 binds with very high affinity to the alpha7 subtype and is a potent full agonist. TC-5619 has little or no activity at other nicotinic receptors, including the alpha4beta2, ganglionic (alpha3beta4) and muscle subtypes. The transgenic th(tk-)/th(tk-) mouse model that reflects many of the developmental, anatomical, and multi-transmitter biochemical aspects of schizophrenia was used to assess the antipsychotic effects of TC-5619. In these mice TC-5619 acted both alone and synergistically with the antipsychotic clozapine to correct impaired pre-pulse inhibition (PPI) and social behavior which model positive and negative symptoms, respectively. Antipsychotic and cognitive effects of TC-5619 were also assessed in rats. Similar to the results in the transgenic mice, TC-5619 significantly reversed apomorphine-induced PPI deficits. In a novel object recognition paradigm in rats TC-5619 demonstrated long-lasting enhancement of memory over a wide dose range. These results suggest that alpha7-selective agonists such as TC-5619, either alone or in combination with antipsychotics, could offer a new approach to treating the constellation of symptoms associated with schizophrenia, including cognitive dysfunction.

The role of fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFR) in normal brain development has been well-documented in transgenic and knock-out mouse models. Changes in FGF and its receptors have also been observed in schizophrenia and related developmental disorders. The current study examines a transgenic th(tk-)/th(tk-) mouse model with FGF receptor signaling disruption targeted to dopamine (DA) neurons, resulting in neurodevelopmental, anatomical, and biochemical alterations similar to those observed in human schizophrenia. We show in th(tk-)/th(tk-) mice that hypoplastic development of DA systems induces serotonergic hyperinnervation of midbrain DA nuclei, demonstrating the co-developmental relationship between DA and 5-HT systems. Behaviorally, th(tk-)/th(tk-) mice displayed impaired sensory gaiting and reduced social interactions correctable by atypical antipsychotics (AAPD) and a specific 5-HT2A antagonist, M100907. The adult onset of neurochemical and behavioral deficits was consistent with the postpubertal time course of psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia and related disorders. The spectrum of abnormalities observed in th(tk-)/th(tk-) mice and the ability of AAPD to correct the behavioral deficits consistent with human psychosis suggests that midbrain 5-HT2A-controlling systems are important loci of therapeutic action. These results may provide further insight into the complex multi-neurotransmitter etiology of neurodevelopmental diseases such autism, bipolar disorder, Asperger's Syndrome and schizophrenia.

Neurogenesis, the process of differentiation of neuronal stem/progenitor cells (NS/PC) into mature neurons, holds the key to the treatment of various neurodegenerative disorders, which are a major health issue for the world's aging population. We report that targeting the novel integrative nuclear FGF Receptor 1 signaling (INFS) pathway enhances the latent potential of NS/PCs to undergo neuronal differentiation, thus promoting neurogenesis in the adult brain. Employing organically modified silica (ORMOSIL)-DNA nanoplexes to efficiently transfect recombinant nuclear forms of FGFR1 and its FGF-2 ligand into the brain subventricular zone, we find that INFS stimulates the NS/PC to withdraw from the cell cycle, differentiate into doublecortin expressing migratory neuroblasts and neurons that migrate to the olfactory bulb, subcortical brain regions and in the brain cortex. Thus, nanoparticle-mediated non-viral gene transfer may be used to induce selective differentiation of NS/PCs, providing a potentially significant impact on the treatment of a broad range of neurological disorders.

Nuclear FGFR1 acts as a developmental gene regulator in cooperation with FGF-2, RSK1, and CREB-binding protein (CBP). FRAP analysis revealed three nuclear FGFR1 populations: i) a fast mobile, ii) a slower mobile population reflecting chromatin-bound FGFR1, and iii) an immobile FGFR1 population associated with the nuclear matrix. Factors (cAMP, CBP) that induce FGFR1-mediated gene activation shifted FGFR1 from the nuclear matrix (immobile) to chromatin (slow) and reduced the movement rate of the chromatin-bound population. Transcription inhibitors accelerated FGFR1 movement; the content of the chromatin-bound slow FGFR1 decreased, whereas the fast population increased. The transcriptional activation appears to involve conversion of the immobile matrix-bound and the fast nuclear FGFR1 into a slow chromatin-binding population through FGFR1's interaction with CBP, RSK1, and the high-molecular-weight form of FGF-2. Our findings support a general mechanism in which gene activation is governed by protein movement and collisions with other proteins and nuclear structures.

In vivo transfer and expression of foreign genes allows for the elucidation of functions of genes in living organisms and generation of disease models in animals that more closely resemble the etiology of human diseases. Gene therapy holds promise for the cure of a number of diseases at the fundamental level. Synthetic "nonviral" materials are fast gaining popularity as safe and efficient vectors for delivering genes to target organs. Not only can nanoparticles function as efficient gene carriers, they also can simultaneously carry diagnostic probes for direct "real-time" visualization of gene transfer and downstream processes. This review has focused on the central nervous system (CNS) as the target for nonviral gene transfer, with special emphasis on organically modified silica (ORMOSIL) nanoparticles developed in our laboratory. These nanoparticles have shown robust gene transfer efficiency in brain cells in vivo and allowed to investigate mechanisms that control neurogenesis as well as neurodegenerative disorders.

Ontogeny requires the coordinated regulation of multigene programs by a plethora of extracellular and intracellular signals, thereby allowing cells to transition between different states, including proliferation and differentiation. Disruption of this regulation can result in oncogenic transformation in which cells are "arrested" in the proliferative state. This article summarizes our current understanding of a novel "Integrative Nuclear Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor-1 (FGFR1) Signaling" (INFS) pathway, which influences differentiation of neural progenitor cells and the associated gene activities. Activation of cell surface neurotransmitter, hormonal, or growth factor receptors stimulates the release of FGFR1 from cytoplasmic membranes into the cytosol. This process is enabled by the atypical transmembrane domain of FGFR1 and is facilitated by the interaction with pp90 ribosomal S6 kinase-1. Cytosolic FGFR1 is transported into the nucleus by importin beta and activates transcription in cooperation with CBP (cyclic AMP Responsive Element-Binding Protein) by augmenting RNA polymerase II activity and histone acetylation. To explain the developmental function of FGFR1, a "feed-forward-and-gate" signaling mechanism is presented in which the INFS pathway "feeds forward" the developmental signals to the common and essential transcriptional coactivator, CBP. The coupled activation of CBP (by INFS) and transcription factors (by specific signaling pathways) enables the coordinated regulation of multigene programs by developmental cues. In some cancer cells, in which INFS is inactive, the reconstitution of nuclear FGFR1 signaling may be used to reestablish this coordinated regulation thereby inhibiting tumor cell proliferation and inducing differentiation.

Studies have shown the presence of expanded polyQ containing proteins in brain cells related to Huntington disease (HD) and other poly-glutamine disorders. We report the use of organically modified silica (ORMOSIL) nanoparticles as an efficient non-viral gene carrier in an effort to model brain pathology associated with those disorders induced by expanded polyQ peptides. In experiment 1, plasmids expressing Hemaglutinin-tagged polypeptides with 20 glutamine repeats (Q20) or with extended 127-glutamine repeats (Q127) were complexed with ORMOSIL nanoparticles and injected twice (2 weeks apart) into the lateral ventricle of the mouse brain. Fourteen days post-injection of Q127, immunocytochemistry revealed the presence of the characteristic nuclear and cytoplasmic Q127 aggregates in numerous striatal, septal and neocortical neuronal cells as well as ubiquitin-containing aggregates indicative of the neuronal pathology. The mice receiving Q127 showed a marked increase in the reactive GFAP (+) astrocytes in striatum, septum and brain cortex, further indicating the neurodegenerative changes, accompanied by motor impairments. In experiment 2, plasmids Q20 or Q127 were complexed with ORMOSIL and were injected into the brain lateral ventricle or directly into the striatum of adult rats. In both routes of transfection, Q127 induced the appearance of reactive GFAP (+) astrocytes and activated ED1 antigen expressing microglia. An increase in the size of the lateral ventricle was also observed in rats receiving Q127. In transgenic mouse polyQ models, extensive pathologies occur outside the nervous system and the observed brain pathologies could reflect developmental effects of the toxic polyQ proteins. Our experiments show that the nervous tissue restricted expression of poly Q-extended peptides in adult brain is sufficient to evoke neuropathologies associated with HD and other polyQ disorders. Thus, nanotechnology can be employed to model pathological and behavioral aspects of genetic brain diseases in mice as well as in other species, providing a novel research tool for in vivo testing of single or multi-gene therapies.

Developing and mature midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons express fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptor-1 (FGFR1). To determine the role of FGFR1 signaling in the development of DA neurons, we generated transgenic mice expressing a dominant negative mutant [FGFR1(TK-)] from the catecholaminergic, neuron-specific tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) gene promoter. In homozygous th(tk-)/th(tk-) mice, significant reductions in the size of TH-immunoreactive neurons were found in the substantia nigra compacta (SNc) and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) at postnatal days 0 and 360. Newborn th(tk-)/th(tk-) mice had a reduced density of DA neurons in both SNc and VTA, and the changes in SNc were maintained into adulthood. The reduced density of DA transporter in the striatum further demonstrated an impaired development of the nigro-striatal DA system. Paradoxically, the th(tk-)/th(tk-) mice had increased levels of DA, homovanilic acid and 3-methoxytyramine in the striatum, indicative of excessive DA transmission. These structural and biochemical changes in DA neurons are similar to those reported in human patients with schizophrenia and, furthermore, these th(tk-)/th(tk-) mice displayed an impaired prepulse inhibition that was reversed by a DA receptor antagonist. Thus, this study establishes a new developmental model for a schizophrenia-like disorder in which the inhibition of FGF signaling leads to alterations in DA neurons and DA-mediated behavior.

The ability of stem and progenitor cells to proliferate and differentiate into other lineages is widely viewed as a characteristic of stem cells. Previously, we have reported that cells from a CD34(-) (nonhematopoietic) adherent subpopulation of human cord blood can acquire a feature of multipotential neural progenitors in vitro. In the present study, using these cord blood-derived stem cells, we have established a clonal cell line termed HUCB-NSCs (human umbilical cord blood-neural stem cells) that expresses several neural antigens and has been grown in culture for more than 60 passages. During this time, HUCB-NSCs retained their growth rate, the ability to differentiate into neuronal-, astrocyte-, and oligodendrocyte-like cells and displayed a stable karyotype. DNA microarray analysis of HUCB-NSCs revealed enhanced expression of selected genes encoding putative stem and progenitor cell markers when compared to other mononuclear cells. dBcAMP-induced HUCBNSCs were further differentiated into more advanced neuronal cells. This is the first report of the establishment and characterization of a nontransformed HUCB-NSC line that can be grown continuously in a monolayer culture and induced to terminal differentiation. These cells should further our understanding of the regulatory mechanisms involved in NSC self-renewal and differentiation.

Biochemical and microscopic studies have indicated that FGFR1 is a transmembrane and soluble protein present in the cytosol and nucleus. How FGFR1 enters the cytosol and subsequently the nucleus to control cell development and associated gene activities has become a compelling question. Analyses of protein synthesis, cytoplasmic subcompartmental distribution and movement of FGFR1-EGFP and FGFR1 mutants showed that FGFR1 exists as three separate populations (a) a newly synthesized, highly mobile, nonglycosylated, cytosolic receptor that is depleted by brefeldin A and resides outside the ER-Golgi lumen, (b) a slowly diffusing membrane receptor population, and (c) an immobile membrane pool increased by brefeldin A. RSK1 increases the highly mobile cytosolic FGFR1 population and its overall diffusion rate leading to increased FGFR1 nuclear accumulation, which coaccumulates with RSK1. A model is proposed in which newly synthesized FGFR1 can enter the (a) "nuclear pathway," where the nonglycosylated receptor is extruded from the pre-Golgi producing highly mobile cytosolic receptor molecules that rapidly accumulate in the nucleus or (b) "membrane pathway," in which FGFR1 is processed through the Golgi, where its movement is spatially restricted to trans-Golgi membranes with limited lateral mobility. Entrance into the nuclear pathway is favored by FGFR1's interaction with kinase active RSK1.

This study shows that an ICP4-replication-deficient herpes simplex virus containing the Moloney murine leukaemia virus LTR fused with the coding sequence for the beta-galactosidase gene can be used as a very effective vector for delivering the beta-galactosidase reporter gene into the rat brain septum. F344 rats received bilateral stereotaxic injections into the nucleus of the diagonal band and into the medial septum. The X-gal stain was used to detect the activity of the expressed beta-galactosidase enzyme. The delivered reporter gene was expressed successfully not only in the neuronal cells of the injected areas but also in cells that project to the injection area such as cortex cells about 6 mm away from the injection sites. Expression was visible at 1, 3 and 9 weeks following injection. We conclude that this vector can effectively deliver genes into different regions of the mature mammalian brain and also to areas distant from the injection site.

The effects of HSV-1 amplicon and polyethyleneimine (PEI)-mediated transfection of dominant negative FGF receptor-1 mutant FGFR1(TK-) into the rat brain substantia nigra (SN) were examined in vivo to model the reduced FGF signaling documented to occur in Parkinson's disease. The number of SN neurons that expressed tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) was significantly reduced following HSV-1 FGFR1(TK-) intranigral delivery and similar changes were observed after PEI-mediated FGFR1(TK-) transfections. Further, we also observed a significantly lower striatal dopamine content following the PEI transfection of FGFR1(TK-). Thus, we conclude that reduced FGF signaling in the SN of Parkinsonian patients could play a role in the impaired dopaminergic transmission associated with the degenerative disease.

This article reports on the application of organically modified silica (ORMOSIL) nanoparticles as a nonviral vector for efficient in vivo gene delivery. Highly monodispersed, stable aqueous suspension of nanoparticles, surface-functionalized with amino groups for binding of DNA, were prepared and characterized. Stereotaxic injections of nanoparticles, complexed with plasmid DNA encoding for EGFP, into the mouse ventral midbrain and into lateral ventricle, allowed us to fluorescently visualize the extensive transfection of neuronal-like cells in substantia nigra and areas surrounding the lateral ventricle. No ORMOSIL-based toxicity was observed 4 weeks after transfection. The efficiency of transfection equaled or exceeded that obtained in studies using a viral vector. An in vivo optical imaging technique (a fiber-based confocal fluorescent imaging system) provided an effective means to show the retention of viability of the transfected cells. The ORMOSIL-mediated transfections also were used to manipulate the biology of the neural stem/progenitor cells in vivo. Transfection of a plasmid expressing the nucleus-targeting fibroblast growth factor receptor type 1 resulted in significant inhibition of the in vivo incorporation of bromodeoxyuridine into the DNA of the cells in the subventricular zone and the adjacent rostral migratory stream. This in vivo approach shows that the nuclear receptor can control the proliferation of the stem/progenitor cells in this region of the brain. The results of this nanomedicine approach using ORMOSIL nanoparticles as a nonviral gene delivery platform have a promising future direction for effective therapeutic manipulation of the neural stem/progenitor cells as well as in vivo targeted brain therapy.

In integrative nuclear fibroblast growth factor receptor-1 (FGFR1) signaling a newly synthesized FGFR1 translocates to the nucleus to stimulate cell differentiation and associated gene activities. The present study shows that FGFR1 accumulates and interacts with the transcriptional co-activator CREB-binding protein (CBP) in nuclear speckle domains in the developing brain and in neural progenitor-like cells in vitro, which accompanies differentiation and postmitotic growth. Cell differentiation and gene activation by nuclear FGFR1 do not require tyrosine kinase activity. Instead, FGFR1 stimulates transcription in cooperation with CBP by increasing recruitment of RNA polymerase II and histone acetylation at the active gene promoter. FGFR1 is a multifactorial protein whose N terminus interacts with CBP and C terminus with ribosomal S6 kinase 1 (RSK1). Nuclear FGFR1 augments CBP-mediated transcription by 1) releasing the CBP C-terminal domain from RSK1 inhibition and 2) activating the CBP N-terminal domain. The interaction of FGFR1 with CBP and RSK1 allows activation of gene transcription and may play a role in cell differentiation.

Fetal cells with the characteristics of neural stem cells (NSCs) can be derived from the nonhematopoietic fraction of human umbilical cord blood (HUCB), expanded as a nonimmortalized cell line (HUCB-NSC), and further differentiated into neuron-like cells (HUCB-NSCD); however, the functional and neuronal properties of these cells are poorly understood. To address this issue, we used whole-cell patch-clamp recordings, gene microarrays, and immunocytochemistry to identify voltage-gated channels and ligand-gated receptors on HUCB-NSCs and HUCB-NSCDs. Gene microarray analysis identified genes for voltage-dependent potassium and sodium channels and the neurotransmitter receptors acetylcholine (ACh), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, glycine, 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), and dopamine (DA). Several of these genes (GABA-A, glycine and glutamate receptors, voltage-gated potassium channels, and voltage-gated sodium type XII alpha channels) were not expressed in the HUCB mono-nuclear fraction (HUCB-MC), which served as a starting cell population for HUCB-NSC. HUCB-NSCD acquired neuronal phenotypes and displayed an inward rectifying potassium current (Kir) and an outward rectifying potassium current (I(K+)). Kir was present on most HUCB-NSCs and HUCB-NSCDs, whereas I(K+) was present only on HUCB-NSCDs. Many HUCB-NSCDs were immunopositive for glutamate, glycine, nicotinic ACh, DA, 5-HT, and GABA receptors. Kainic acid (KA), a non-N-methyl-D-asparate (NMDA) glutamate-receptor agonist, induced an inward current in some HUCB-NSCDs. KA, glycine, DA, ACh, GABA, and 5-HT partially blocked Kir through their respective receptors. These results suggest that HUCB-NSCs differentiate toward neuron-like cells, with functional voltage- and ligand-gated channels identified in other neuronal systems.

CNS gene transfer could provide new approaches to the modelling of neurodegenerative diseases and devising potential therapies. One such disorder is Parkinson's disease (PD), in which dysfunction of several different metabolic processes has been implicated. Here we review the literature on gene transfer systems based on herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and non-viral polyethyleneimine (PEI) and calcium phosphate nanoparticle methods. We also assess the usefulness of various CNS gene delivery methods and present some of our own data to exemplify such usefulness. Our data result from vectors stereotaxically introduced to the substantia nigra (SN) of adult rats and evaluated 1 week and/or 1 month post injection using histochemical methods to assess recombinant ss-galactosidase enzyme activity. Gene transfer using PEI or calcium phosphate-mediated transfections was observed for both methods and PEI was comparable to that of HSV-1 amplicon. Our data show that the amplicon delivery was markedly increased when packaged with a helper virus and was similar to the expression profile achieved with a full-size replication-defective HSV-1 recombinant (8117/43). We also examine whether PEI or HSV-1 amplicon-mediated gene transfer could facilitate assessment of the biological effects induced by a dominant negative FGF receptor-1 mutant to model the reduced FGF signalling thought to occur in Parkinson's disease.