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Through a series of case studies in diverse regions of the world, this book explores how transnational Norwegian energy and extractive industries handle corporate social responsibility (CSR) when operating abroad in places such as China, Brazil, and Turkey. With significant state ownership and embeddedness in the Nordic societal model, Norwegian capitalism is often represented as “benign” or ethical. By tracing CSR policy and practice—from headquarters to operations—this volume critically explores the workings of Norwegian corporate capitalism and its engagement with key issues of responsibility, accountability, and sustainability.

Through a multi-sited study of the Norwegian state-owned renewable energy corporation Statkraft, this article explores how the increasing embedding of corporate social responsibility in international guidelines impacts the way responsibility is handled when large energy corporations operate overseas. Focusing on one of Statkraft's projects in Turkey, we detail how standards are used to guide both operations in the field and external reporting, in the process distancing the corporation from its Norwegian origin. We argue that the application of standards results in much less standardization than is often assumed. “Stories” become as important for reporting as standards, and the elusive figure of the “stakeholder” plays an important role in holding together the heterogeneous field of corporate responsibility. publishedVersion

This theme section brings the state back into anthropological studies of corporate social responsibility through the lens of Norwegian energy corporations working abroad. Th ese transnational corporations (TNCs) are expected by the government to act responsibly when “going global.” Yet, we have observed that abroad, Norwegian corporations backed by state capital largely operate like any other TNCs. We argue that the driver for the adaptation to global capitalism is not coming from the embracing of neoliberal policies in Norway, but is rather inherent to the ways internationalization of the Norwegian economy is unfolding. To the extent that the Norwegian state has an impact on the corporations’ international endeavors, it relates primarily to the imperative of managing Norway’s reputation as a humanitarian superpower.

Understanding the role of large energy corporations in society is a crucial, yet challenging task for the social\ud science of energy. Ethnographic methods hold potential for plying into corporations’ own self-representations,\ud to reveal the relations of power and politics that determine flows of energy and extractive capital at the global\ud and local level. Ethnography help us move beyond structural analyses, to locate the agents and processes at work\ud within economies of energy production, and identify tensions and dynamics both within the corporation and at\ud the interface with society. We argue that a multi-method and reflexive approach can help social scientists reflect\ud on frictions in corporate encounters, and more importantly that attention to frictions is in fact a gateway to gain\ud new insights about the field. In our research project about Norwegian energy companies and their corporate social\ud responsibility work when ‘going global’, applying a multi-method made us question dominant assumptions\ud within anthropology of what constitutes “access”. We discuss how multiple approaches to “access”, which takes\ud into account the positionality of the researcher, fluidity of research fields along with attention to power dynamics\ud can shape the sort of knowledge that is produced when studying energy companies.

The surge of environmental protest in Turkey has been interpreted as ‘above politics’ activism that strengthens civil society, fosters alternative expressions of identity, and creates new forms of agency outside the state. This article contends that any analysis of the way environmentalism unfolds in Turkey must take into account identity dynamics and the power the state has over these dynamics. Environmental activism seldom remains purely ‘issue-based’, despite the claims and desires of many activists themselves that their protests be ‘above politics’ as a ‘people’s movement’. Drawing on ethnographic and other methods in the study of environmental protest against a gas power plant on the Black Sea coast, this article shows how activists are caught in a dilemma which forces them to tread very carefully if they are to avoid accusations of being separatists or betrayers of the fatherland. Thus, environmental conflicts in Turkey can only be understood within the context of national identity- and part...

What happens when a transnational energy corporation, armed with the internationally circulating discourse of ‘corporate social responsibility’ (CSR), meets legacies of charitable giving in Turkey? With a particular focus on the important role education has (re-)attained as a target for CSR or charitable giving in Turkey, I discuss how one of the largest corporations in Turkey emphasizes education in their CSR policies. The major case study focuses on a controversy over what constitutes a ‘proper’ CSR contribution to local communities by a transnational energy corporation hoping to win support for construction of a large gas power plant on the shores of the Black Sea. I argue that local culture can be seen as being adapted to work in/for neoliberal techniques of governance, but also that corporate ethics are adapted or domesticated by local, or historically embedded moral standards.

It has become common to consider "invasive alien species" one among the five most important "direct drivers" of change in biodiversity and ecosystems worldwide. However, the sea snail, Rapana venosa, introduced to the Black Sea is not only an "alien" but also a resource and an animal with particular meanings from a Muslim moral standpoint. I employ a relational ontology approach to discuss how the sea snail's multiplicity interacts with concerns about "biodiversity," notions of nativeness, and material agency in enacting different sea snails and the relations among them. I demonstrate that the biodiversity perspective has had very little impact on enactments of the sea snail and has not absorbed concerns about "alien species." [Keywords: Biodiversity, natural resources, fisheries, relational ontology, value, Turkey, Black Sea]F o re i g n L a n g u a g e Tr a n s l a t i o n s :Multiple Sea Snails: The Uncertain Becoming of an Alien Species[Keywords: Biodiversity, natural resources, fisheries, relational ontology, value, Turkey, Black Sea][Keywords: biyocesitlilik, doga kaynaklar, balikcilik, deger, Turkiye, Karadeniz]Multiplos Caracois do Mar: A Emergencia Incerta de uma Especie Alienigena[Palavras-chave: Biodiversidade, recursos naturais, pescas, ontologia relacional, valor, Turquia, Mar Negro]...(ProQuest: ... denotes non-US-ASCII text omitted.)"Invasive alien species" are one among the five most important "direct drivers" of change in biodiversity and ecosystems worldwide. This statement has, in many circles, become a truism in the years after it was first formulated by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (see, e.g., Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005), and is frequently repeated in academic articles and on posters concerning alien invasive species. However, in some cases, this truism is partly destabilized when the "alien" species in question is also a commercially significant resource.1 In this article, I focus on a case in Turkey where the management of the introduced sea snail, Rapana venosa, in the Black Sea had to deal with the dilemma of the sea snail being both a commodity and an alien species.The coupling of biodiversity and a concern with alien species seems to be taking hold in Turkey as in other countries. Turkey has followed the standard official procedures after they ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1997. National reports and plans submitted to the CBD include discussion of "invasive alien species," while a draftof a new law on "Nature and Biological Diversity Protection" formulates additional, more stringent policies relating to "exotic" species. However, the sea snail in Turkey is not a stabilized, single object. For some Turkish marine scientists, the sea snail is an alien invasive species and so its stock should be exploited as much as possible. For other scientists, it is a resource to be managed as such. All are concerned about the supposedly harmful practice of dredging by which the sea snail is fished. Since the Turkish small-boat fishery for sea snails started in the early 1980s, management has wavered between different compromises. Many small boat fishers depend on dredging sea snails for their livelihood and, therefore, are not concerned about the newness of the sea snail to the Black Sea. The fishers and other people in the region consider the sea snail "unclean" for other reasons, namely its classification as haram according to Islamic dietary law.I use this case to examine the extent to which biodiversity "discourse" has been adopted in Turkey and how the biodiversity-inspired "alarmist" view on alien species interacts with the commercial and haram sea snails. One approach would be to consider the snail as a stable object which various groups value differently. However, building on a relational ontology approach, I want to argue that the snail is multiple (Mol 2002) and messy (Law 2004), and that considering it in this way allows us to better understand the peculiarities of how global concerns with biodiversity have resonated in Turkey. …

Rapana venosa is a non-indigenous invasive predator on bivalves in the Black Sea. A Rapana fishery has developed in the Black Sea since the 1980s, primarily in Turkey and Bulgaria. The Rapana fishery provides a complex management problem with three groups of objectives: 1. Good economic status; 2. Good environmental status and 3. Cost of implementation. To address the various conflicting objectives of this management problem an ecosystem approach was taken to analyze the problem. Stakeholder workshops were set up in Varna (Bulgaria) and Samsun (Turkey) to discuss and evaluate management alternatives based on environmental (MSFD), economic and implementation objectives. Workshops were attended by fishers, factory owners, nature conservation NGOs, biologists and government representatives. In these workshops multi-criteria analysis was used to communicate information on trade-offs between objectives to generate feedback from the stakeholders. This proved useful as a means to retrieve information from the stakeholders and to identify areas of consensus and conflict. Although the process differed substantially between the Bulgarian and Turkish case studies both workshops showed limited conflict between environmental status and socio-economic status. Analysis showed that the real-trade-off was between these two objectives and the cost of implementation both in terms of monetary expense as in terms of resistance from stakeholders. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd.

This study focuses on the corporate social responsibility (CSR) work the Austrian energy company OMV pursued as it constructed a gas power plant on the shores of the Black Sea. I argue that neither social movement theory nor CSR theory fully explain what happened in this case. Environmental protests quickly became embedded in local politics and national identity figurations, and the CSR work by the company was transformed and domesticated by local actors. While agency and power was thus distributed, various actors also shared a common language, tapping into a globally circulating discourse that has gained traction in Turkey with the current neoliberal policies. The way CSR was played out and negotiated in this case meant that social capital and equity were construed as issues of concern, while environmental issues were downplayed. Thus, in the process, the double bind between the growth economy and ecologies of survival was effectively reproduced. publishedVersion

This study aims to investigate and model driving forces that lead to increased fishing pressure and an altered state of the environment in the coastal areas near Samsun on the Turkish Black Sea coast. We have applied a modified DPSIR model to structure our investigation and analysis and have investigated the drivers that generate fishing pressure in the Samsun fisheries. The overall health of the ecosystem is declining, and there is a consistent trend of deterioration in the condition of the three major species targeted by the trawl fisheries. Although introduced invasive species have brought significant changes to the Black Sea, it is clear that the state of the environment is significantly and negatively affected by the pressure exerted by fisheries. Fishing pressure has to a certain extent been redirected to pelagic trawling as bottom trawling has become less profitable and a rise in catch capacity has levelled off. This reduction is, however, offset by an increase in illegal trawling and dredging by a very rapidly growing sector of multi-purpose small boats, resulting in a considerable increase in the overall accumulated engine power of fishing boats in Samsun during 2000–2005. Fisheries in Samsun, in particular sea snail fisheries, have constituted a frontier of sorts open to the poorer populations of Samsun during the last 20 years, and, thereby, constitute one of the major drivers for fishing pressure. We identify eight drivers of importance for the period 2000–2005. Although the authorities can impact all or most of those drivers, most of them are beyond the scope of conventional ‘fisheries management’.

During recent decades anthropogenic activities have dramatically impacted the Black Sea ecosystem. High levels of riverine nutrient input during the 1970s and 1980s caused eutrophic conditions including intense algal blooms resulting in hypoxia and the subsequent collapse of benthic habitats on the northwestern shelf. Intense fishing pressure also depleted stocks of many apex predators, contributing to an increase in planktivorous fish that are now the focus of fishing efforts. Additionally, the Black Sea's ecosystem changed even further with the introduction of exotic species. Economic collapse of the surrounding socialist republics in the early 1990s resulted in decreased nutrient loading which has allowed the Black Sea ecosystem to start to recover, but under rapidly changing economic and political conditions, future recovery is uncertain. In this study we use a multidisciplinary approach to integrate information from socio-economic and ecological systems to model the effects of future development scenarios on the marine environment of the northwestern Black Sea shelf. The Driver–Pressure–State-Impact-Response framework was used to construct conceptual models, explicitly mapping impacts of socio-economic Drivers on the marine ecosystem. Bayesian belief networks (BBNs), a stochastic modelling technique, were used to quantify these causal relationships, operationalise models and assess the effects of alternative development paths on the Black Sea ecosystem. BBNs use probabilistic dependencies as a common metric, allowing the integration of quantitative and qualitative information. Under the Baseline Scenario, recovery of the Black Sea appears tenuous as the exploitation of environmental resources (agriculture, fishing and shipping) increases with continued economic development of post-Soviet countries. This results in the loss of wetlands through drainage and reclamation. Water transparency decreases as phytoplankton bloom and this deterioration in water quality leads to the degradation of coastal plant communities (Cystoseira, seagrass) and also Phyllophora habitat on the shelf. Decomposition of benthic plants results in hypoxia killing flora and fauna associated with these habitats. Ecological pressure from these factors along with constant levels of fishing activity results in target stocks remaining depleted. Of the four Alternative Scenarios, two show improvements on the Baseline ecosystem condition, with improved waste water treatment and reduced fishing pressure, while the other two show a worsening, due to increased natural resource exploitation leading to rapid reversal of any recent ecosystem recovery. From this we conclude that variations in economic policy have significant consequences for the health of the Black Sea, and ecosystem recovery is directly linked to social–economic choices.

This article explores post‐Soviet developments and contemporary social structure in Russian and Ukrainian fisheries in the Black Sea region. We analyze how the collapse of the Soviet Union brought changes in international relations, state policies, bureaucracy and economy, which resulted in overall structural change and decline in the fisheries. The article discusses the changed role for the fishery cooperatives and the emergence of new actors and new organizations in the fishery sector.

In the context of development and changes in two small-boat fisheries on the eastern Black Sea coast of Turkey, this article discusses how institutions are embedded in tradition, and what is “traditional” in “traditional knowledge”. Taking new institutional economics’ focus on institutions and approaches to traditional ecological knowledge as vantage points for discussion I compare systems of informal management in one discontinued and one new fishery to address questions such as: What kinds of knowledges and rules are involved in these kinds of fishing? What constitutes a tradition of knowledge? What is the role of tradition in working out new rules? I couple theories of situated knowledge (Ingold) and embeddedness of rules (Varela), both of which are inspired by Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenological approach, to show how institutions and traditional ecological knowledge are embedded and come together in practice.

With socioeconomic liberalization and development, especially since 1980, Turkey has witnessed rapid changes in consumption patterns and fashion styles. Often one fad rapidly follows another, creatively combining symbols of the Ottoman era, foreign influences, and regional traditions. Kandiyoti argues that “[t]here is little doubt that class cultures in Turkey are increasingly being shaped and redefined through the medium of consumption.” Thus, consumption has emerged recently as a central concern and analytical tool in historical, anthropological, and sociological works on Ottoman and Turkish society. One trend focuses on the secular high-income class' “globalized” consumption patterns and lifestyle, especially as expressed through shopping patterns and the commoditization of symbols of Turkish secularism. Another, more prevalent, trend is more concerned with the upwardly mobile Islamists' attempt at articulating their newly gained economic status through consumption. A third directs attention to the history of consumption and “the everyday” to counter a previous emphasis on production and state politics in the Ottoman Empire.

In a popular review article about fisheries in Istanbul, Professor Oztiirk, a leading Turkish marine scientist, asserts that Turkish fishermen, 'unlike fishermen in European countries or in Japan, have absolutely no tradition of protecting the fishing grounds or controlling fishing areas'.1 I examine critically both the content and context of Oztiirk's statement. First, I will demonstrate that his claim is not correct. Historical sources provide evidence of very detailed and locality-specific customary rules for the protection and control of fishing grounds in Ottoman fisheries, particularly in Istanbul. Furthermore, ethnography on contemporary fishing in Turkey shows that, although of more limited scale and consequence, there are also living traditions for customary, locality-based restrictions on access. The historical and contemporary practices described in some detail counter the content of Oztiirk's assertion.2 However, I also intend to go beyond a description of practices and ask: what makes statements like Oztiirk's possible in the context of modem Turkey? Why have customary practices of restriction on access in the fisheries not been incorporated in the republican state's approach to fishery management? I argue, basically, that this is primarily an effect of extreme futurism in Turkish development ideology. In the first sections I provide a historical overview3 that tracks simultaneously the fishermen's traditions and the changing approach of the state to fisheries from the Ottoman era until the present. What interests has the state had in the fisheries? To what degree and in what manner has the state influenced fishing practices? At a general level there has been a shift in emphasis in state policy from taxation to economic development. To the modernizing and westernizing Turkish state, production and proteins have become the main concerns and challenges in the fishery sector. The developmental ideals for the fisheries have been instrumental in instilling in the bureaucrats, managers and scientists, the idea of a decisive break between past traditions and new developments. This study surveys this developmental ideal in some detail. The growth of the Turkish marine sciences has been

This article addresses the challenges that Black Sea fisheries confront, with a particular focus on the Turkish fisheries. The development and structure of the fisheries in the Turkish Black Sea region is briefly sketched. Managers and scientists in Turkey often hold that lack of awareness among fishermen is the main reason for the problems in the fisheries. Based on material from extended fieldwork and surveys particularly in the province of Trabzon, Turkey, this assertion is critically examined. It is argued that the focus should rather be directed at the socio-economic structure and politics of fishing, and the article closes with a discussion of potential mechanisms for restructuring the Turkish Black Sea fisheries.

Since its introduction in the Turkish fisheries in 1980, use of the fish finder device sonar has been a controversial issue among fishermen and between fishermen and scientists. Most fishermen claim that sonars scare away or kill fish while local marine scientists contend that sonars have no such effect. What can study of this conflict tell us about the use of advanced technology in regions of the world far away from the metropolitan production of such technologies? In this ethnographic approach to a study in the field of Science and Technology Studies (STS) the fishermen's use of and the scientists' research on the sonar are surveyed. The article discusses the degree to which the adoption of sonar in the Turkish fisheries has resulted in a standardization of fishing practices—not only technologically, but possibly also in the way the fishermen perceive the hunt. Some theoretical arguments on how people relate to technology are reviewed and a phenomenologically inspired perspective advanced. It is argued that too much attention on finding the "Truth"—in this case whether the sonar is harmful to fish or not—diverts attention from more fundamental issues, such as what kinds of change sonar has brought to the social relations of production.

The Black Sea has suffered severe environmental degradation. Governance of the Black Sea region is complex and results in a series of scale mismatches which constrain management. This paper develops a simple classification of spatial scale mismatches incorporating the driver, pressure, state, welfare, response (DPSWR) framework. The scale mismatch classification is applied to two major environmental problems of the Black Sea, eutrophication and small pelagic fisheries. A number of scale mismatches are described and classified and potential solutions are identified.

Small-scale fisheries for the introduced sea snail (Rapana venosa) have seen booms followed by irreversible bust. This chapter focuses on the role of this fishery relative to poverty dynamics on the Turkish Black Sea coast, and explores how fishers cope with boom and bust, respectively. We consider poverty as a multi-faceted issue and analyze in some detail fishers’ income, social security, health, education, housing, as well as people’s own, culturally-informed perception of what constitutes poverty. Yet, our analysis aims beyond a descriptive account of poverty among fishers, and queries the epistemological status of the vicious circle model. Thus, we discuss how sea snail fishing has also constituted a way out of poverty; that it is uncertain whether overfishing can be blamed for the bust; that contextual factors, such as state welfare and agricultural policies, international organizations, and world economic dynamics, can have significant impact on poverty and wealth among the coastal population of the Black Sea coast of Turkey. The boom years of the sea snail fisheries clearly created a frontier situation inhibiting prospects of co-management between the state and communities of fishers. The observed lack of collective action among fishers and their concomitant incapacity to participate can be considered a dimension of poverty. Therefore, fishery development should not only go hand in hand with fishery management, but also with social policies aimed at reducing poverty and inequality.

WOS: 000327755900009, Turkey's marine fisheries catches were estimated for the 1950-2010 time period using a reconstruction approach, which estimated all fisheries removals, including unreported landings, recreational landings and discards. We added these estimates to the 'official' data, as reported in TURKSTAT, which are also available from the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The total reconstructed catch for the 1950-2010 time period (inclusive of the reported data) is approximately 30 million t, or 63% more than the 18.4 million t of reported data. This added 11.6 million t to the reported data, consisting of 7.4 million t of unreported landings, nearly 2.6 million t of discards, and 1.45 million t of recreational catches and 1.15 million t of subsistence catches. In 2010, total reported marine landings for Turkey were 445,617 t and the total reconstructed catch was 726,272 t, or 63% more than the reported data. The main unreported taxon by tonnage was European anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) due to its sheer high proportion of catch. The major reasons for underreporting include a general distrust fishers have towards the system combined with inefficient fisheries monitoring and surveillance capabilities. Accounting for all fisheries components is crucial in understanding the development of fisheries resources, improving management, and reducing threats to the domestic food security of Turkey.