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Direct observations of the size of the Greenland Ice Sheet during Quaternary interglaciations are sparse yet valuable for testing numerical models of ice-sheet history and sea level contribution. Recent measurements of cosmogenic nuclides in bedrock from beneath the Greenland Ice Sheet collected during past deep-drilling campaigns reveal that the ice sheet was significantly smaller, and perhaps largely absent, sometime during the past 1.1 million years. These discoveries from decades-old basal samples motivate new, targeted sampling for cosmogenic-nuclide analysis beneath the ice sheet. Current drills available for retrieving bed material from the US Ice Drilling Program require < 700 m ice thickness and a frozen bed, while quartz-bearing bedrock lithologies are required for measuring a large suite of cosmogenic nuclides. We find that these and other requirements yield only ∼ 3.4 % of the Greenland Ice Sheet bed as a suitable drilling target using presently available technology. Additional factors related to scientific questions of interest are the following: which areas of the present ice sheet are the most sensitive to warming, where would a retreating ice sheet expose bare ground rather than leave a remnant ice cap, and which areas are most likely to remain frozen bedded throughout glacial cycles and thus best preserve cosmogenic nuclides? Here we identify locations beneath the Greenland Ice Sheet that are best suited for potential future drilling and analysis. These include sites bordering Inglefield Land in northwestern Greenland, near Victoria Fjord and Mylius-Erichsen Land in northern Greenland, and inland from the alpine topography along the ice margin in eastern and northeastern Greenland. Results from cosmogenic-nuclide analysis in new sub-ice bedrock cores from these areas would help to constrain dimensions of the Greenland Ice Sheet in the past.

Basal icequakes are generated as a glacier slides over its underlying bedrock, and the stick-slip motion of constant loading and unloading releases shear stresses that produce these very small magnitude (ML < 0) glacial microseisms. Detecting and locating nucleation of these fine-scale icequakes can provide highly useful insights into the deformation processes occurring at the bed and consequently the mechanisms governing glacier flow. We present icequake data derived from a seismic array installed at the grounding line of the Rutford Ice Stream in West Antarctica by Penn State University and the British Antarctic Survey during the 2018/19 austral summer. The region’s natural source seismicity was first processed using the earthquake detection and location software QuakeMigrate and the events were relatively relocated using HypoDD/GrowClust. We then clustered the events into sticky spot clusters using the unsupervised clustering algorithm DBSCAN, and finally from the clusters we selected “model” waveforms to perform template matching on the original seismic traces to create methodically comprehensive high-resolution icequake catalogs at the grounding line of Rutford. We present our methodology including the complete processing pipeline (supplemented by developed supporting open-source scripts) along with key tuning parameters, and describe how our catalogs were used to resolve glacier sliding patterns and key topographical features and characteristics of the bed like sticky spots. We additionally explore the effects of tidal modulation and Rutford ice flow motion on icequake occurrences. Our seismic traces primarily contain icequake signals that derive from stick-slip sliding, but also unique waveforms that might be derived from crevassing and teleseisms that we will also explore. Our results show that stick-slip basal icequakes and these resultant icequake catalogs are valuable data-rich resources that help improve our understanding of glacier flow dynamics and will be important toward improving glacier flow models used for constraining global mean sea level rise.

Funding: This work is from the MELT project, a component of the International Thwaites Glacier Collaboration (ITGC). Support from the National Science Foundation (NSF, grant no. 1739003) and the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC, grant no. NE/S006656/1). Logistics provided by NSF U.S. Antarctic Program and NERC British Antarctic Survey. The ship-based CTD data were supported by the ITGC TARSAN project (NERC grant nos. NE/S006419/1 and NE/S006591/1; NSF grant no. 1929991). ITGC contribution no. ITGC 047. Thwaites Glacier is one of the fastest-changing ice–ocean systems in Antarctica1,2,3. Much of the ice sheet within the catchment of Thwaites Glacier is grounded below sea level on bedrock that deepens inland4, making it susceptible to rapid and irreversible ice loss that could raise the global sea level by more than half a metre2,3,5. The rate and extent of ice loss, and whether it proceeds irreversibly, are set by the ocean conditions and basal melting within the grounding-zone region where Thwaites Glacier first goes afloat3,6, both of which are largely unknown. Here we show—using observations from a hot-water-drilled access hole—that the grounding zone of Thwaites Eastern Ice Shelf (TEIS) is characterized by a warm and highly stable water column with temperatures substantially higher than the in situ freezing point. Despite these warm conditions, low current speeds and strong density stratification in the ice–ocean boundary layer actively restrict the vertical mixing of heat towards the ice base7,8, resulting in strongly suppressed basal melting. Our results demonstrate that the canonical model of ice-shelf basal melting used to generate sea-level projections cannot reproduce observed melt rates beneath this critically important glacier, and that rapid and possibly unstable grounding-line retreat may be associated with relatively modest basal melt rates. Publisher PDF

Direct observations of the size of the Greenland Ice Sheet during Quaternary interglaciations are sparse yet valuable for testing numerical models of ice-sheet history and sea level contribution. Recent measurements of cosmogenic nuclides in bedrock from beneath the Greenland Ice Sheet collected during past deep-drilling campaigns reveal that the ice sheet was significantly smaller, and perhaps largely absent, sometime during the past 1.1 million years. These discoveries from decades-old basal samples motivate new, targeted sampling for cosmogenic-nuclide analysis beneath the ice sheet. Current drills available for retrieving bed material from the US Ice Drilling Program require < 700 m ice thickness and a frozen bed, while quartz-bearing bedrock lithologies are required for measuring a large suite of cosmogenic nuclides. We find that these and other requirements yield only ∼ 3.4 % of the Greenland Ice Sheet bed as a suitable drilling target using presently available technology. Additional factors related to scientific questions of interest are the following: which areas of the present ice sheet are the most sensitive to warming, where would a retreating ice sheet expose bare ground rather than leave a remnant ice cap, and which areas are most likely to remain frozen bedded throughout glacial cycles and thus best preserve cosmogenic nuclides? Here we identify locations beneath the Greenland Ice Sheet that are best suited for potential future drilling and analysis. These include sites bordering Inglefield Land in northwestern Greenland, near Victoria Fjord and Mylius-Erichsen Land in northern Greenland, and inland from the alpine topography along the ice margin in eastern and northeastern Greenland. Results from cosmogenic-nuclide analysis in new sub-ice bedrock cores from these areas would help to constrain dimensions of the Greenland Ice Sheet in the past.

Sea-level rise of even one meter will have drastic global impacts. Melting the Greenland Ice Sheet (GIS) would raise sea level by 7.4 meters. There is an urgent need to improve predictions of how quickly the GIS will contribute its first meter of sea-level rise, and from where on the ice sheet that water will come. Estimating the volume of Greenland ice that was lost during past warm periods offers a way to constrain the ice sheet’s likely response to future warming. Here, we assess the sea-level potential across Greenland, based on an ensemble of ice-sheet model simulations that represent a wide range of plausible deglaciation styles. The most vulnerable region of the ice sheet is in West Greenland between approximately 64ºN and 76ºN, ranging from ~10 to ~150 km behind the present-day ice margin. The ensemble spread for the most stable regions of the GIS is sensitive to lithospheric feedbacks, while the most vulnerable GIS region is predominantly sensitive to spatial climatology and precipitation lapse rate. These results can guide future subglacial sampling by identifying regions and locations where such data will have the greatest impact on our understanding of ice-sheet vulnerability/contribution to sea-level rise in a warming world.

Ice sheets reshape Earth’s surface. Maps of the landscape formed by past ice sheets are our best tool for reconstructing historic ice sheet behavior. But models of glacier erosion and deposition that explain mapped features are relatively untested, and without observations of landforms developing in situ, postglacial landscapes can provide only qualitative insight into past ice sheet conditions. Here we present the first swath radar data collected in Antarctica, demonstrating the ability of swath radar technology to map the subglacial environment of Thwaites Glacier (West Antarctica) at comparable resolutions to digital elevation models of deglaciated terrain. Incompatibility between measured bedform orientation and predicted subglacial water pathways indicates that ice, not water, is the primary actor in initiating bedform development at Thwaites Glacier. These data show no clear relationship between morphology and glacier speed, a weak relationship between morphology and basal shear stress, and highlight a likely role for preexisting geology in glacial bedform shape.

We describe elongate, wet, subglacial bedforms in the shear margins of the NE Greenland Ice Stream and place some constraints on their formation. Lateral shear margin moraines have been observed across the previously glaciated landscape, but little is known about the ice-flow conditions necessary to form these bedforms. Here we describe in situ sediment bedforms under the NE Greenland Ice Stream shear margins that are observed in active-source seismic and ground-penetrating radar surveys. We find bedforms in the shear margins that are ~500 m wide, ~50 m tall, and elongated nearly parallel to ice-flow, including what we believe to be the first subglacial observation of a shear margin moraine. Acoustic impedance analysis of the bedforms shows that they are composed of unconsolidated, deformable, water-saturated till. We use these geophysical observations to place constraints on the possible formation mechanism of these subglacial features.

Recent seismic measurements from upper Thwaites Glacier indicate that the bed-type variability is closely related to the along-flow basal topography. In high-relief subglacial highlands, stoss sides of topographic highs have a relatively higher acoustic impedance (‘hard’ bed) with lower acoustic impedance (‘soft’ till) on lee sides. This pattern is similar to observations of many deglaciated terrains. Subglacial hydraulic-potential gradient and its divergence show a tendency for water to diverge over the stoss sides and converge into the lee sides. Convergence favors a thicker or more widespread water system, which can more efficiently decouple ice from the underlying till. Under such circumstances, till deformation does occur but, fluxes are relatively small. Till carried from the lee sides onto stoss sides of downstream bumps should couple to the ice more efficiently, increasing the ability for transport by till deformation. In turn, this suggests that steady-state till transport can be achieved if the stoss-side till layer is thin or discontinuous. In addition, the large basal shear stress generated in the highlands seems too high for a bed lubricated by a continuous although thin deforming till, suggesting till discontinuity, which would allow debris-laden ice to erode bedrock on stoss sides, supplying additional till for transport.

Three holes were drilled to the bed of Rutford Ice Stream, through ice up to 2154 m thick, to investigate the basal processes and conditions associated with fast ice flow and the glacial history of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. A narrative of the drilling, measuring and sampling activities, as well as some preliminary results and initial interpretations of subglacial conditions, is given. These were the deepest subglacial access holes ever drilled using the hot-water drilling method. Samples of bed and englacial sediments were recovered, and a number of instruments were installed in the ice column and the bed. The ice–bed interface was found to be unfrozen, with an existing, well-developed subglacial hydrological system at high pressure, within ~1% of the ice overburden. The bed itself comprises soft, water-saturated sediments, consistent with previous geophysical interpretations. Englacial sediment quantity varies significantly between two locations ~2 km apart, and possibly over even shorter (~20 m) distances. Difficulties and unusual observations encountered while connecting to the subglacial hydrological system in one hole possibly resulted from the presence of a large clast embedded in the bottom of the ice.

The grounding zone of Whillans Ice Stream, West Antarctica, exhibits an abrupt transition in basal properties from the grounded ice to the ocean cavity over distances of less than 0.5–1 km. Active-source seismic methods reveal the downglacier-most grounded portion of the ice stream is underlain by a relatively stiff substrate (relatively high shear wave velocities of 1100±430 m s−1) compared to the deformable till found elsewhere beneath the ice stream. Changes in basal reflectivity in our study area cannot be explained by the stage of the tide. Several kilometres upstream of the grounding zone, layers of subglacial water are detected, as are regions that appear to be water layers but are less than the thickness resolvable by our technique. The presence of stiff subglacial sediment and thin water layers upstream of the grounding zone supports previous studies that have proposed the dewatering of sediment within the grounding zone and the trapping of subglacial water upstream of the ocean cavity. The setting enables calibration of our methodology using returns from the floating ice shelf. This allows a comparison of different techniques used to estimate the sizes of the seismic sources, a constraint essential for the accurate recovery of subglacial properties. We find a strong correlation (coefficient of determination=0.46) between our calibrated method and a commonly used multiple-bounce method, but our results also highlight the incomplete knowledge of other factors affecting the amplitude of seismic sources and reflections in the cryosphere.

We present a shear wave model of the West Antarctic upper mantle to ∼200 km depth with enhanced regional resolution from the 2016-2018 UK Antarctic Seismic Network. The model is constructed from the combination of fundamental mode Rayleigh wave phase velocities extracted from ambient noise (periods 8-25 s) and earthquake data by two-plane wave analysis (periods 20-143 s). We seek to (i) image and interpret structures against the tectonic evolution of West Antarctica, and (ii) extract information from the seismic model that can serve as boundary conditions in ice sheet and glacial isostatic adjustment modelling efforts. The distribution of low velocity anomalies in the uppermost mantle suggests that recent tectonism in the West Antarctic Rift System (WARS) is mainly concentrated beneath the rift margins and largely confined to the uppermost mantle (

We present an upper mantle P-wave velocity model for the Ross Sea Embayment (RSE) region of West Antarctica, constructed by inverting relative P-wave travel-times from 1881 teleseismic earthquakes recorded by two temporary broadband seismograph deployments on the Ross Ice Shelf, as well as by regional ice- and rock-sited seismic stations surrounding the RSE. Faster upper mantle P-wave velocities ( ∼ + 1 % ) characterize the eastern part of the RSE, indicating that the lithosphere in this part of the RSE may not have been reheated by mid-to-late Cenozoic rifting that affected other parts of the Late Cretaceous West Antarctic Rift System. Slower upper mantle velocities ( ∼ − 1 % ) characterize the western part of the RSE over a ∼500 km-wide region, extending from the central RSE to the Transantarctic Mountains (TAM). Within this region, the model shows two areas of even slower velocities ( ∼ − 1.5 % ) centered beneath Mt. Erebus and Mt. Melbourne along the TAM front. We attribute the broader region of slow velocities mainly to reheating of the lithospheric mantle by Paleogene rifting, while the slower velocities beneath the areas of recent volcanism may reflect a Neogene-present phase of rifting and/or plume activity associated with the formation of the Terror Rift. Beneath the Ford Ranges and King Edward VII Peninsula in western Marie Byrd Land, the P-wave model shows lateral variability in upper mantle velocities of ±0.5% over distances of a few hundred km. The heterogeneity in upper mantle velocities imaged beneath the RSE and western Marie Byrd Land, assuming no significant variation in mantle composition, indicates variations in upper mantle temperatures of at least 100 °C. These temperature variations could lead to differences in surface heat flow of ∼±10 mW/m2 and mantle viscosity of 102 Pa s regionally across the study area, possibly influencing the stability of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet by affecting basal ice conditions and glacial isostatic adjustment.

Polar research using ice-penetrating radars will benefit from the development of smaller and more flexible systems. In this paper, we present the development progression for a series of compact and frequency-reconfigurable ice-penetrating radars based on software-defined radio (SDR) technology and platforms. The Ice Radar series we developed consists of three systems, each based on a different SDR platform that afforded additional capability as we progressed. Detailed descriptions of system structure and performance are provided for each ice radar. We present laboratory measurements to support system capabilities, and provide results of field experiments at Subglacial Lake Whillans in West Antarctica for one of the systems. Finally, we discuss ongoing research of ice-penetrating radar development that utilize SDR technology.

Seismic measurements on Thwaites Glacier show a spatially variable bed character, with implications for ice-sheet stability. The West Antarctic Ice Sheet is losing mass rapidly through outlet glaciers and ice streams in the Amundsen Sea Embayment, including Thwaites Glacier, where limited observations and modeling suggest that ice-flow rates depend on bed properties. Here we characterize bed properties of Thwaites Glacier based on amplitude analysis of reflection-seismic data from a ∼40-km-long profile collected in the approximate flow direction and two ∼10-km-long profiles transverse to flow. The upstream portion of the seismic profile reveals a ∼12-km long sedimentary basin with ice-flow-aligned bedforms capped by a continuous till layer that is likely soft and deforming (porosity ∼0.4–0.45), with several locations where water has pooled at the bed. Downstream of the sedimentary basin, the bed rises by ∼400 m over ∼25 km into subglacial highlands. Our seismic survey of these subglacial highlands reveals strong spatial variations in bed character across rugged topography (∼200 m amplitude at ∼2- to 5-km wavelength) resembling crag-and-tails. Till on the stoss sides (facing upglacier) of topographic highs is more consolidated (porosity ∼0.3–0.35 or lower), whereas the lee sides (facing downglacier) and flat regions exhibit porosity similar to the till of the upstream sedimentary basin. Modeling studies could use the observed correlation between bed character and bed aspect and slope to extend our observations to other parts of Thwaites Glacier, resulting in more-realistic models of future grounding-line retreat. Our findings highlight the need for more geophysical constraints on bed properties for important outlets in Antarctica and Greenland.

The history of the Greenland Ice Sheet has been influenced by the geodynamic response to ice sheet fluctuations, and this interaction may help explain past deglaciations under modest climate forcing. We hypothesize that when the Iceland hot spot passed beneath north‐central Greenland, it thinned the lithosphere and left anomalous heat likely with partially melted rock; however, it did not break through the crust to supply voluminous flood basalts. Subsequent Plio‐Pleistocene glacial‐interglacial cycles caused large and rapidly migrating stresses, driving dike formation and other processes that shifted melted rock toward the surface. The resulting increase in surface geothermal flux favored a thinner, faster‐responding ice sheet that was more prone to deglaciation. If this hypothesis of control through changes in geothermal flux is correct, then the long‐term (10 (sup 5) to 10 (sup 6) years) trend now is toward lower geothermal flux, but with higher‐frequency (less than or equal to 10( sup 4) to 10 (sup 5) years) oscillations linked to glacial‐interglacial cycles. Whether the geothermal flux is increasing or decreasing now is not known but is of societal relevance due to its possible impact on ice flow. We infer that projections of the future of the ice sheet and its effect on sea level must integrate geologic and geophysical data as well as glaciological, atmospheric, oceanic, and paleoclimatic information.

Subglacial and ice-sheet marginal sedimentary basins have very different physical properties to crystalline bedrock and, therefore, form distinct conditions that influence the flow of ice above. Sedimentary rocks are particularly soft and erodible, and therefore capable of sustaining layers of subglacial till that may deform to facilitate fast ice flow downstream. Furthermore, sedimentary rocks are relatively permeable and thus allow for enhanced fluid flux, with associated impacts on ice-sheet dynamics, including feedbacks with subglacial hydrologic systems and transport of heat to the ice-sheet bed. Despite the importance for ice-sheet dynamics there is, at present, no comprehensive record of sedimentary basins in the Antarctic continent, limiting our capacity to investigate these influences. Here we develop the first version of an Antarctic-wide spatial database of sedimentary basins, their geometries and physical attributes. We emphasise the definition of in-situ and undeformed basins that retain their primary characteristics, including relative weakness and high permeability, and therefore are more likely to influence ice sheet dynamics. We define the likely extents and nature of sedimentary basins, considering a range of geological and geophysical data, including: outcrop observations, gravity and magnetic data, radio-echo sounding data and passive and active-source seismic data. Our interpretation also involves derivative products from these data, including analyses guided by machine learning. The database includes for each basin its defining characteristics in the source datasets, and interpreted information on likely basin age, sedimentary thickness, surface morphology and tectonic type. The database is constructed in ESRI geodatabase format and is suitable for incorporation in multifaceted data-interpretation and modelling procedures. It can be readily updated given new information. We define extensive basins in both East and West Antarctica, including major regions in the Ross and Weddell Sea embayments and the Amundsen Sea region of West Antarctica, and the Wilkes, Aurora and Recovery subglacial basins of East Antarctica. The compilation includes smaller basins within crystalline-bedrock dominated areas such as the Transantarctic Mountains, the Antarctic Peninsula and Dronning Maud Land. The distribution of sedimentary basins reveals the combined influence of the tectonic and glacial history of Antarctica on the current and future configuration of the Antarctic Ice Sheet and highlights areas in which the presence of dynamically-evolving subglacial till layers and the exchange of groundwater and heat with the ice sheet bed are more likely, contributing to dynamic behaviour of the Antarctic Ice Sheet.

Subglacial topography and bed character are important controls on glacier and ice-sheet flow. Previous studies using reflection-seismic data from the upper half of Thwaites Glacier, West Antarctica, have shown variations in the bed character in the along-flow direction with continuous soft bed in the flatter “lowland” areas and a mix of soft and hard bed over more elevated, rugged “highland” areas. Here we use long-offset reflection/refraction seismic and aerogravity data over a ~40-km section 230-km inland of the current grounding line to model the upper-crustal structures and relate them to the previously identified bed-character variability. We identified a sedimentary basin ~11-km long and up to ~400-m deep beneath the lowland area with continuous soft bed. The downstream end of this sedimentary basin aligns with the transition from the lowland to highland area which indicates its existence could be related to the formation of the subglacial topography. The sedimentary basin is a graben or half-graben potentially formed due to rifting associated with the development of the West Antarctic Rift System, suggesting tectonic influence on the bed character variability and, in turn, on the glacier flow. We will further analyze the seismic reflection data and also add aeromagnetic data to model the crustal structures more accurately and clarify the potential tectonic control on bed-character variability.

Microseismicity, induced by the sliding of a glacier over its bed, can be used to characterize frictional properties of the ice‐bed interface, which are a key parameter controlling ice stream flow. We use naturally occurring seismicity to monitor spatiotemporally varying bed properties at Rutford Ice Stream, West Antarctica. We locate 230000 micro‐earthquakes with local magnitudes from –2.0 to –0.3 using 90 days of recordings from a 35‐station seismic network located ∼40 km upstream of the grounding line. Events exclusively occur near the ice‐bed interface and indicate predominantly flow‐parallel stick‐slip. They mostly lie within a region of interpreted stiff till and along the likely stiffer part of mega‐scale glacial landforms. Within these regions, micro‐earthquakes occur in spatially (

Microseismicity, induced by the sliding of a glacier over its bed, can be used to characterize frictional properties of the ice-bed interface, which are a key parameter controlling ice stream flow....

The grounding zone of Whillans Ice Stream, West Antarctica, exhibits an abrupt transition in basal properties from the grounded ice to the ocean cavity over distances of less than 0.5–1 km. Active source seismic methods reveal the grounded portion of the ice stream is underlain by a relatively stiff substrate (relatively high shear wave velocities) compared to the deformable till found elsewhere beneath the ice stream. Several kilometers upstream of the grounding zone, layers of subglacial water are detected, as are regions that appear to be water layers less than the thickness resolvable by our technique. The presence of stiff subglacial sediment and thin water layers upstream of the grounding zone supports previous studies that have proposed the dewatering of sediment within the grounding zone and the possibility that ocean water is pumped into the subglacial system and upstream. The setting enables calibration of our methodology using returns from the floating ice shelf. This allows a comparison of different techniques used to estimate the sizes of the seismic sources. We find a strong correlation (coefficient of determination = 0.45) between our calibrated method and a commonly used amplitude ratio method, but our results also highlight the incomplete knowledge of other factors affecting the amplitude of seismic sources and reflections in the cryosphere.

Thwaites Glacier (TG), West Antarctica, is losing mass in response to oceanic forcing. Future evolution could lead to deglaciation of the marine basins of the West Antarctic ice sheet, depending on ongoing and future climate forcings, but also on basal topography/bathymetry, basal properties, and physical processes operating within the grounding zone. Hence, it is important to know the actual distribution of bed types of TG’s interior and grounding zone, and to incorporate them accurately in models to improve estimates of retreat rates and stability. Here we determine bed reflectivity and acoustic impedance via amplitude analysis of reflection seismic data. We report on the results from two lines – a longitudinal (L-Line) and a transverse (N-Line) – on a central flowline of TG 100 km inland from the grounding zone. There is considerable variability in bed forms and properties, both within this dataset and in-comparison with nearby work. Notably, we find the same hard (bedrock) stoss and soft (till) lee pattern observed elsewhere on TG in prior work. Physical understanding indicates the basal flow law describing motion over different regions of TG’s bed likely varies from nearly viscous over the hard bedrock regions to nearly plastic over soft till regions, providing a template for modeling.

Ice stream flow is predominantly controlled by sliding over the bed, deformation within the bed and deformation within the ice column. The significance of processes at the bed, now and in the future, remains uncertain due to a lack of knowledge of conditions at the ice stream bed. In the Austral summer of 2018/19, as part of the BEAMISH Project, three holes were drilled to the bed of Rutford Ice Stream to install instruments in the ice column and at the bed, and also sample the bed. Prior to drilling, three seismic profiles were acquired across the bed access sites. These data therefore provide a rare opportunity to compare in situ measurements of ice stream bed conditions with seismic reflection data. The seismic line acquisition was also repeated one year later to investigate any changes at the bed following the drilling and connection to the bed. We will use a combination of imaging, acoustic impedance calculation and wide-angle reflection amplitude variation to characterise the bed conditions using the seismic data.

Microseismicity, induced by the sliding of a glacier over its bed and through bed deformation, can be used to characterize frictional properties of the ice-bed interface. Together with ice column deformation, these characteristics form the key parameters controlling ice stream flow. Here, we use naturally occuring seismicity to monitor temporal and spatial changes in bed properties at Rutford Ice Stream (RIS), West Antarctica, in order to characterize ongoing basal deformation and sliding. RIS is a significant contributor to the outflow of ice from West Antarctica, with speeds of ~1.1 m/day. Past geological and geophysical surveys, including drilling into the bed itself, have revealed pronounced bed topography and a sharp change in bed character along flow direction from presumably soft deformable to stiffer sediments. These complementary data as well as Rutford’s flow characteristics allow us to interpret the seismic data in their geological context.Our data consist of three months of seismic recordings from a 35-station seismic network located ~40 km upstream the grounding line of RIS, being collected in the framework of the BEAMISH project during the 2018/19 field season. An event catalogue derived using the QuakeMigrate and Nonlinloc software packages reveals an active seismic environment (~40,000 events in three months) with locally clustered microseismicity. Microseismicity occurs near the ice-bed interface and is concentrated in the transition region between presumed-soft and presumed-hard sediments. Within the more compacted sediments further seismicity occurs, predominantly along topographic lows, which form elongated, flow parallel sub-glacial valleys. Within the regions of activity, seismicity tends to cluster in focused spots of particular high activity. Repeated basal seismicity at spatially restricted locations has been observed before and was interpreted as being caused by ‘sticky spots’ within a more ductile deforming matrix. Our results, showing a close alignment of these sticky spots along structural and topographic boundaries, may indicate that such features form major obstacles for basal glacial sliding. In addition to these spatial variations, the average event frequency varies over time. We estimate an ~15 day periodicity to the activity with as many as 1200 events/day during the active times and as few as ~100 events per day during the more-quiescent times. This roughly corresponds to the period of the spring-neap tidal cycle which has been shown to modulate the horizontal flow velocity of RIS. Time dependent variations in the frequency of microseismicity might suggest the glacial bed affected by these modulations.

Author(s): Shen, Weisen; Wiens, Douglas A; Anandakrishnan, Sridhar; Aster, Richard C; Gerstoft, Peter; Bromirski, Peter D; Hansen, Samantha E; Dalziel, Ian W. D; Heeszel, David S; Huerta, Audrey D; Nyblade, Andrew A; Stephen, Ralph; Wilson, Terry J; Winberry, J. Paul