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Electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) continue to rapidly evolve. Current products pose unique challenges and opportunities for researchers and regulators. This commentary aims to highlight research gaps, particularly in toxicity research, and provide guidance on priority research questions for the tobacco regulatory community. Disposable flavoured ENDS have become the most popular device class among youth and may contain higher nicotine levels than JUUL devices. They also exhibit enhanced harmful and potentially harmful constituents production, contain elevated levels of synthetic coolants and pose environmental concerns. Synthetic nicotine and flavour capsules are innovations that have recently enabled the circumvention of Food and Drug Administration oversight. Coil-less ENDS offer the promise of delivering fewer toxicants due to the absence of heating coils, but initial studies show that these products exhibit similar toxicological profiles compared with JUULs. Each of these topic areas requires further research to understand and mitigate their impact on human health, especially their risks to young users.

BackgroundThe emergence of a plethora of new tobacco products marketed as being less harmful than smoking, such as electronic cigarettes and heated tobacco products, and the increased popularity of recreational marijuana have raised concerns about the potential cardiovascular risk associated with their use.ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to investigate whether the use of novel tobacco products or marijuana can cause the development of proarrhythmic substrate and eventually lead to arrhythmias.MethodsRats were exposed to smoke from tobacco, marijuana, or cannabinoid-depleted marijuana, to aerosol from electronic cigarettes or heated tobacco products, or to clean air once per day for 8 weeks, following by assays for blood pressure, cardiac function, ex vivo electrophysiology, and histochemistry.ResultsThe rats exposed to tobacco or marijuana products exhibited progressively increased systolic blood pressure, decreased cardiac systolic function with chamber dilation, and reduced overall heart rate variability, relative to the clean air negative control group. Atrial fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia testing by ex vivo optical mapping revealed a significantly higher susceptibility to each, with a shortened effective refractory period and prolonged calcium transient duration. Histological analysis indicated that in all exposure conditions except for air, exposure to smoke or aerosol from tobacco or marijuana products caused severe fibrosis with decreased microvessel density and higher level of sympathetic nerve innervation.ConclusionThese pathophysiological results indicate that tobacco and marijuana products can induce arrhythmogenic substrates involved in cardiac electrical, structural, and neural remodeling, facilitating the development of arrhythmias.

Heart failure (HF) remains a global public health burden and often results following myocardial infarction (MI). Following injury, cardiac fibrosis forms in the myocardium which greatly hinders cellular function, survival, and recruitment, thus severely limits tissue regeneration. Here, we leverage biophysical microstructural cues made of hyaluronic acid (HA) loaded with the anti-fibrotic proteoglycan decorin to more robustly attenuate cardiac fibrosis after acute myocardial injury. Microrods showed decorin incorporation throughout the entirety of the hydrogel structures and exhibited first-order release kinetics in vitro. Intramyocardial injections of saline (n = 5), microrods (n = 7), decorin microrods (n = 10), and free decorin (n = 4) were performed in male rat models of ischemia-reperfusion MI to evaluate therapeutic effects on cardiac remodeling and function. Echocardiographic analysis demonstrated that rats treated with decorin microrods (5.21% ± 4.29%) exhibited significantly increased change in ejection fraction (EF) at 8 weeks post-MI compared to rats treated with saline (-4.18% ± 2.78%, p

BackgroundExposure to tobacco or marijuana smoke, or e-cigarette aerosols, causes vascular endothelial dysfunction in humans and rats. We aimed to determine what constituent, or class of constituents, of smoke is responsible for endothelial functional impairment.MethodsWe investigated several smoke constituents that we hypothesized to mediate this effect by exposing rats and measuring arterial flow-mediated dilation (FMD) pre- and post-exposure. We measured FMD before and after inhalation of sidestream smoke from research cigarettes containing normal and reduced nicotine level with and without menthol, as well as 2 of the main aldehyde gases found in both smoke and e-cigarette aerosol (acrolein and acetaldehyde), and inert carbon nanoparticles.ResultsFMD was reduced by all 4 kinds of research cigarettes, with extent of reduction ranging from 20% to 46% depending on the cigarette type. While nicotine was not required for the impairment, higher nicotine levels in smoke were associated with a greater percent reduction of FMD (41.1±4.5% reduction versus 19.2±9.5%; P=0.047). Lower menthol levels were also associated with a greater percent reduction of FMD (18.5±9.8% versus 40.5±4.8%; P=0.048). Inhalation of acrolein or acetaldehyde gases at smoke-relevant concentrations impaired FMD by roughly 50% (P=0.001). However, inhalation of inert carbon nanoparticles at smoke-relevant concentrations with no gas phase also impaired FMD by a comparable amount (P

BackgroundThe harmful vascular effects of smoking are well established, but the effects of chronic use of electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) on endothelial function are less understood. We hypothesized that e-cigarette use causes changes in blood milieu that impair endothelial function.MethodsEndothelial function was measured in chronic e-cigarette users, chronic cigarette smokers, and nonusers. We measured effects of participants' sera, or e-cigarette aerosol condensate, on NO and H2O2 release and cell permeability in cultured endothelial cells (ECs).ResultsE-cigarette users and smokers had lower flow-mediated dilation (FMD) than nonusers. Sera from e-cigarette users and smokers reduced VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor)-induced NO secretion by ECs relative to nonuser sera, without significant reduction in endothelial NO synthase mRNA or protein levels. E-cigarette user sera caused increased endothelial release of H2O2, and more permeability than nonuser sera. E-cigarette users and smokers exhibited changes in circulating biomarkers of inflammation, thrombosis, and cell adhesion relative to nonusers, but with distinct profiles. E-cigarette user sera had higher concentrations of the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) ligands S100A8 and HMGB1 (high mobility group box 1) than smoker and nonuser sera, and receptor for advanced glycation end product inhibition reduced permeability induced by e-cigarette user sera but did not affect NO production.ConclusionsChronic vaping and smoking both impair FMD and cause changes in the blood that inhibit endothelial NO release. Vaping, but not smoking, causes changes in the blood that increase microvascular endothelial permeability and may have a vaping-specific effect on intracellular oxidative state. Our results suggest a role for RAGE in e-cigarette-induced changes in endothelial function.

IntroductionElectronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS; ie, vaping devices) such as e-cigarettes, heated tobacco products, and newer coil-less ultrasonic vaping devices are promoted as less harmful alternatives to combustible cigarettes. However, their cardiovascular effects are understudied. We investigated whether exposure to aerosol from a wide range of ENDS devices, including a new ultrasonic vaping device, impairs endothelial function.Aims and methodsWe measured arterial flow-mediated dilation (FMD) in rats (n = 8/group) exposed to single session of 10 cycles of pulsatile 5-second exposure over 5 minutes to aerosol from e-liquids with and without nicotine generated from a USONICIG ultrasonic vaping device, previous generation e-cigarettes, 5% nicotine JUUL pods (Virginia Tobacco, Mango, Menthol), and an IQOS heated tobacco product; with Marlboro Red cigarette smoke and clean air as controls. We evaluated nicotine absorption and serum nitric oxide levels after exposure, and effects of different nicotine acidifiers on platelet aggregation.ResultsAerosol/smoke from all conditions except air significantly impaired FMD. Serum nicotine varied widely from highest in the IQOS group to lowest in USONICIG and previous generation e-cig groups. Nitric oxide levels were not affected by exposure. Exposure to JUUL and similarly acidified nicotine salt e-liquids did not affect platelet aggregation rate. Despite lack of heating coil, the USONICIG under airflow conditions heated e-liquid to ~77°C.ConclusionsA wide range of ENDS, including multiple types of e-cigarettes with and without nicotine, a heated tobacco product, and an ultrasonic vaping device devoid of heating coil, all impair FMD after a single vaping session comparably to combusted cigarettes.ImplicationsThe need to understand the cardiovascular effects of various ENDS is of timely importance, as we have seen a dramatic increase in the use of these products in recent years, along with the growing assumption among its users that these devices are relatively benign. Our conclusion that a single exposure to aerosol from a wide range of ENDS impairs endothelial function comparably to cigarettes indicates that vaping can cause similar acute vascular functional impairment to smoking and is not a harmless activity.

Introduction: Electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS; i.e., vaping devices) such as e-cigarettes, heated tobacco products, and newer coil-less ultrasonic vaping devices are promoted as less harmful alternatives to combustible cigarettes. However, the cardiovascular health effects of these devices are understudied. We investigated whether exposure to aerosol from a wide range of ENDS devices with and without nicotine, including a new ultrasonic vaping device, impairs endothelial function. Hypothesis: ENDS aerosols irrespective of nicotine, flavors, and heating coil impair endothelial function comparably to smoke from cigarettes. Methods: We exposed 11 groups (n=8), of anaesthetized rats to aerosol from propylene glycol (PG), vegetable glycerin (VG), PG+VG without nicotine, a USONICIG Zip ultrasonic vaping device, previous generation e-cigarettes (tank style with freebase nicotine), 5% nicotine JUUL pods of three flavors (Virginia tobacco, Mango, and Menthol), and an IQOS heated tobacco product; with Marlboro Red cigarette smoke and clean air as controls, to a single session of 10 cycles of pulsatile 5s exposure over 5 minutes. Endothelial function was quantified as arterial flow-mediated dilation (FMD) using micro-ultrasound. Results: Aerosol/smoke from all conditions except air significantly impaired FMD (Figure: each colored line denotes one rat, black horizontal bars denote means). The extent of impairment ranged from 40%-67% although there were no significant differences between groups. Nicotine absorption into the blood varied widely from these undiluted aerosols (those containing nicotine), with IQOS being the highest, and USONICIG and previous generation e-cig being the lowest. Conclusions: A single session of exposure to aerosol from a wide range of ENDS, including multiple types of e-cigarettes, a heated tobacco product, and an ultrasonic vaping device, all impair endothelial vascular function comparably to combusted cigarettes. Key words: JUUL, IQOS, ultrasonic vaping device, e-liquids, flow-mediated dilation

ObjectivesJUUL and earlier generation electronic cigarettes (e-cigs) are promoted as being less hazardous than cigarettes. While JUUL Labs, in particular, claims that switching from smoking to vaping has beneficial impacts, the health effects of such products are not well understood. We investigated whether exposure to JUUL and previous generation e-cig aerosol impairs endothelial function comparably to cigarette smoke.MethodsWe exposed rats to aerosol from Virginia Tobacco flavor JUUL, an e-cig tank system using unflavored freebase nicotine e-liquid, Marlboro Red combustible tobacco cigarettes, or clean air for 10 cycles of 2 second inhalation over 5 minutes. Endothelial function (FMD) was measured pre- and post-exposure. Blood was collected 20 mins post-exposure for serum nicotine analysis.ResultsAerosol/smoke from JUUL, previous generation e-cigs, and cigarettes all impaired FMD. The extent of impairment ranged from 34%-58%, although the differences between groups were insignificant. Nicotine was highest in serum from the JUUL group; for the other e-cig and cigarette groups, nicotine levels were lower and comparable to each other.ConclusionsAerosol from JUUL and previous generation e-cigs impairs endothelial function in rats, comparable to impairment by cigarette smoke.

Introduction: Acute exposure to tobacco or marijuana secondhand smoke (SHS) causes endothelial dysfunction. The identity of specific SHS constituents that cause vascular toxicity is unclear. Heavy metals are present in SHS and at elevated levels in the blood of smokers, and may mediate acute endothelial dysfunction through reactive oxygen species formation and decreasing NO bioavailability. We assessed the effects of exposure to cadmium, lead, mercury, and arsenic at levels present in the blood of human smokers on flow-mediated dilation (FMD) as a measure of endothelial function in rats. We also evaluated the effects of heavy metal exposure on intimal structure, protein localization pattern, and inflammatory gene expression in the aortic endothelium. Hypothesis: Sub-cytotoxic levels of heavy metals impair FMD, alter intimal structure, and induce pro-inflammatory signaling in endothelium. Methods: We injected rats (n=8/group) with heavy metal cocktail or vehicle intravenously and quantitated pre- and post-exposure FMDs measures defined as percent vasodilation of femoral artery after transient ischemia. We performed en face aorta immunostaining and assessed endothelial cell axis alignment, cell length ratio, and localization pattern of PECAM-1, VE-cadherin, and vimentin. We also quantified gene expression of key endothelial proteins in aorta homogenates. Results: FMD was not impaired in the heavy metal group (8.8±3.6(SD)% vs. 12.9±8.0%, p=.31 or controls (7.5±2.7% vs. 8.8±5.8%, p=.63). No significant difference in cell length ratio and endothelial x and y axes of alignment were detected between groups (p>.8) and localization of PECAM-1, VE-cadherin, and vimentin in the aorta endothelium remained unaltered following heavy metal injection. However, expression of PECAM-1 and VE-cadherin was significantly lower in the heavy metal-treated rats, while VCAM-1 gene expression was significantly higher (p

BackgroundElectronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) have experienced a tremendous increase in use. Unlike cigarette smoking, the effects of e-cigarettes and their constituents on mediating vascular health remain understudied. However, given their increasing popularity, it is imperative to evaluate the health risks of e-cigarettes, including the effects of their ingredients, especially nicotine and flavorings.ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of flavored e-cigarette liquids (e-liquids) and serum isolated from e-cigarette users on endothelial health and endothelial cell-dependent macrophage activation.MethodsHuman-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived endothelial cells (iPSC-ECs) and a high-throughput screening approach were used to assess endothelial integrity following exposure to 6 different e-liquids with varying nicotine concentrations and to serum from e-cigarette users.ResultsThe cytotoxicity of the e-liquids varied considerably, with the cinnamon-flavored product being most potent and leading to significantly decreased cell viability, increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, caspase 3/7 activity, and low-density lipoprotein uptake, activation of oxidative stress-related pathway, and impaired tube formation and migration, confirming endothelial dysfunction. Upon exposure of ECs to e-liquid, conditioned media induced macrophage polarization into a pro-inflammatory state, eliciting the production of interleukin-1β and -6, leading to increased ROS. After exposure of human iPSC-ECs to serum of e-cigarette users, increased ROS linked to endothelial dysfunction was observed, as indicated by impaired pro-angiogenic properties. There was also an observed increase in inflammatory cytokine expression in the serum of e-cigarette users.ConclusionsAcute exposure to flavored e-liquids or e-cigarette use exacerbates endothelial dysfunction, which often precedes cardiovascular diseases.

ABSTRACT Objectives JUUL and earlier generation electronic cigarettes (e-cigs) are promoted as being less hazardous than cigarettes. While JUUL Labs, in particular, claims that switching from smoking to vaping has beneficial impacts, the health effects of such products are not well understood. We investigated whether exposure to JUUL and previous generation e-cig aerosol impairs endothelial function comparably to cigarette smoke. Methods We exposed rats to aerosol from Virginia Tobacco flavor JUUL, an e-cig tank system using unflavored freebase nicotine e-liquid, Marlboro Red combustible tobacco cigarettes, or clean air for 10 cycles of 2 second inhalation over 5 minutes. Endothelial function (FMD) was measured pre- and post-exposure. Blood was collected 20 mins post-exposure for serum nicotine analysis. Results Aerosol/smoke from JUUL, previous generation e-cigs, and cigarettes all impaired FMD. The extent of impairment ranged from 34%-58%, although the differences between groups were insignificant. Nicotine was highest in serum from the JUUL group; for the other e-cig and cigarette groups, nicotine levels were lower and comparable to each other. Conclusions Aerosol from JUUL and previous generation e-cigs impairs endothelial function in rats, comparable to impairment by cigarette smoke.

BackgroundHeated tobacco products (also called 'heat-not-burn' products) heat tobacco at temperatures below that of combustion, causing nicotine and other compounds to aerosolise. One such product, IQOS from Philip Morris International, is being marketed internationally with claims of harm reduction. We sought to determine whether exposure to IQOS aerosol impairs arterial flow-mediated dilation (FMD), a measure of vascular endothelial function that is impaired by tobacco smoke.MethodsWe exposed anaesthetised rats (n=8/group) via nose cone to IQOS aerosol from single HeatSticks, mainstream smoke from single Marlboro Red cigarettes or clean air for a series of consecutive 30 s cycles over 1.5-5 min. Each cycle consisted of 15 or 5 s of exposure followed by removal from the nose cone. We measured pre-exposure and postexposure FMD, and postexposure serum nicotine and cotinine.ResultsFMD was impaired comparably by ten 15 s exposures and ten 5 s exposures to IQOS aerosol and to cigarette smoke, but not by clean air. Serum nicotine levels were similar to plasma levels after humans have smoked one cigarette, confirming that exposure conditions had real-world relevance. Postexposure nicotine levels were ~4.5-fold higher in rats exposed to IQOS than to cigarettes, despite nicotine being measured in the IQOS aerosol at ~63% the amount measured in smoke. When IQOS exposure was briefer, leading to comparable serum nicotine levels to the cigarette group, FMD was still comparably impaired.ConclusionsAcute exposures to IQOS aerosol impairs FMD in rats. IQOS use does not necessarily avoid the adverse cardiovascular effects of smoking cigarettes.

Treatment of myocardial infarction (MI) with bone marrow cells (BMCs) improves post-MI cardiac function in rodents. However, clinical trials of BMC therapy have been less effective. While most rodent experiments use young healthy donors, patients undergoing autologous cell therapy are older and post-MI. We previously demonstrated that BMCs from aged and post-MI donor mice are therapeutically impaired, and that donor MI induces inflammatory changes in BMC composition including reduced levels of B lymphocytes. Here, we hypothesized that B cell alterations in bone marrow account for the reduced therapeutic potential of post-MI and aged donor BMCs. Injection of BMCs from increasingly aged donor mice resulted in progressively poorer cardiac function and larger infarct size. Flow cytometry revealed fewer B cells in aged donor bone marrow. Therapeutic efficacy of young healthy donor BMCs was reduced by depletion of B cells. Implantation of intact or lysed B cells improved cardiac function, whereas intact or lysed T cells provided only minor benefit. We conclude that B cells play an important paracrine role in effective BMC therapy for MI. Reduction of bone marrow B cells because of age or MI may partially explain why clinical autologous cell therapy has not matched the success of rodent experiments.

Evidence is accumulating that exposure to cigarette smoke (CS) increases the risk of developing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of bacterial pneumonia, which in turn is the leading cause of ARDS. Chronic smokers have increased rates of pneumococcal colonization and develop more severe pneumococcal pneumonia than nonsmokers; yet mechanistic connections between CS exposure, bacterial pneumonia, and ARDS pathogenesis remain relatively unexplored. We exposed mice to 3 wk of moderate whole body CS or air, followed by intranasal inoculation with an invasive serotype of S. pneumoniae. CS exposure alone caused no detectable lung injury or bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) inflammation. During pneumococcal infection, CS-exposed mice had greater survival than air-exposed mice, in association with reduced systemic spread of bacteria from the lungs. However, when mice were treated with antibiotics after infection to improve clinical relevance, the survival benefit was lost, and CS-exposed mice had more pulmonary edema, increased numbers of BAL monocytes, and elevated monocyte and lymphocyte chemokines. CS-exposed antibiotic-treated mice also had higher serum surfactant protein D and angiopoietin-2, consistent with more severe lung epithelial and endothelial injury. The results indicate that acute CS exposure enhances the recruitment of immune cells to the lung during bacterial pneumonia, an effect that may provide microbiological benefit but simultaneously exposes the mice to more severe inflammatory lung injury. The inclusion of antibiotic treatment in preclinical studies of acute lung injury in bacterial pneumonia may enhance clinical relevance, particularly for future studies of current or emerging tobacco products.

BackgroundDespite public awareness that tobacco secondhand smoke (SHS) is harmful, many people still assume that marijuana SHS is benign. Debates about whether smoke-free laws should include marijuana are becoming increasingly widespread as marijuana is legalized and the cannabis industry grows. Lack of evidence for marijuana SHS causing acute cardiovascular harm is frequently mistaken for evidence that it is harmless, despite chemical and physical similarity between marijuana and tobacco smoke. We investigated whether brief exposure to marijuana SHS causes acute vascular endothelial dysfunction.Methods and resultsWe measured endothelial function as femoral artery flow-mediated dilation (FMD) in rats before and after exposure to marijuana SHS at levels similar to real-world tobacco SHS conditions. One minute of exposure to marijuana SHS impaired FMD to a comparable extent as impairment from equal concentrations of tobacco SHS, but recovery was considerably slower for marijuana. Exposure to marijuana SHS directly caused cannabinoid-independent vasodilation that subsided within 25 minutes, whereas FMD remained impaired for at least 90 minutes. Impairment occurred even when marijuana lacked cannabinoids and rolling paper was omitted. Endothelium-independent vasodilation by nitroglycerin administration was not impaired. FMD was not impaired by exposure to chamber air.ConclusionsOne minute of exposure to marijuana SHS substantially impairs endothelial function in rats for at least 90 minutes, considerably longer than comparable impairment by tobacco SHS. Impairment of FMD does not require cannabinoids, nicotine, or rolling paper smoke. Our findings in rats suggest that SHS can exert similar adverse cardiovascular effects regardless of whether it is from tobacco or marijuana.

Psychological stress and glucocorticoids are associated with heightened cardiovascular disease risk. We investigated whether stress or cortisol would be associated with reduced circulating angiogenic cell (CAC) function, an index of impaired vascular repair. We hypothesized that minority-race individuals who experience threat in interracial interactions would exhibit reduced CAC function, and that this link might be explained by cortisol. To test this experimentally, we recruited 106 African American participants for a laboratory interracial interaction task, in which they received socially evaluative feedback from Caucasian confederates. On a separate day, a subset of 32 participants (mean age=26years, 47% female) enrolled in a separate biological substudy and provided blood samples for CAC isolation and salivary samples to quantify the morning peak in cortisol (the cortisol awakening response, CAR). CAC function was quantified using cell culture assays of migration to vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and secretion of VEGF into the culture medium. Heightened threat in response to an interracial interaction and trait anxiety in vivo were both associated with poorer CAC migratory function in vitro. Further, threat and poorer sustained attention during the interracial interaction were associated with a higher CAR, which in turn, was related to lower CAC sensitivity to glucocorticoids. In vitro, higher doses of cortisol impaired CAC migratory function and VEGF protein secretion. The glucocorticoid receptor antagonist RU486 reversed this functional impairment. These data identify a novel, neuroendocrine pathway by which psychological stress may reduce CAC function, with potential implications for cardiovascular health.

ObjectivesLittle cigars and cigarillos are gaining in popularity as cigarette use wanes, mainly due to relaxed regulatory standards that make them cheaper, easier to buy individually, and available in a variety of flavors not allowed in cigarettes. To address whether they should be regulated as strictly as cigarettes, we investigated whether little cigar secondhand smoke (SHS) decreases vascular endothelial function like that of cigarettes.MethodsWe exposed rats to SHS from little cigars, cigarettes, or chamber air, for 10 minutes and measured the resulting acute impairment of arterial flow-mediated dilation (FMD).ResultsSHS from both little cigars and cigarettes impaired FMD. Impairment was greater after exposure to little cigar SHS than by cigarette SHS relative to pre-exposure values, although the post-exposure FMD values were not significantly different from each other.ConclusionsExposure to little cigar SHS leads to impairment of FMD that is at least equal to that resulting from similar levels of cigarette SHS. Our findings support the need to prevent even brief exposure to little cigar SHS, and support tobacco control policies that regulate little cigars as strictly as cigarettes.

IntroductionWe sought to determine the effects of brief exposures to low concentrations of tobacco secondhand smoke (SHS) on arterial flow-mediated dilation (FMD, a nitric oxide-dependent measure of vascular endothelial function), in a controlled animal model never before exposed to smoke. In humans, SHS exposure for 30 min impairs FMD. It is important to gain a better understanding of the acute effects of exposure to SHS at low concentrations and for brief periods of time.MethodsWe measured changes in FMD in rats exposed to a range of real-world levels of SHS for durations of 30 min, 10 min, 1 min, and 4 breaths (roughly 15 s).ResultsWe observed a dose-response relationship between SHS particle concentration over 30 min and post-exposure impairment of FMD, which was linear through the range typically encountered in smoky restaurants and then saturated at higher concentrations. One min of exposure to SHS at moderate concentrations was sufficient to impair FMD.ConclusionsBrief SHS exposure at real-world levels reversibly impairs FMD. Even 1 min of SHS exposure can cause reduction of endothelial function.

Current evidence suggests that regenerative v. degenerative endothelial responses can be integrated in a clinical endothelial phenotype, reflecting the net result between damage from risk factors and endogenous repair capacity. We have previously shown that a cocoa flavanol (CF) intervention can improve endothelial function and increase the regenerative capacity of the endothelium by mobilising circulating angiogenic cells in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). The aim of the present study was to investigate whether CF can lower the levels of circulating endothelial microparticles (EMP), markers of endothelial integrity, along with improvements in endothelial function. The levels of EMP in the frozen plasma samples of CAD patients were measured along with endothelial function (flow-mediated vasodilation, FMD); n 16, FMD data published previously), and these data were compared with those of young (n 12) and age-matched (n 12) healthy control subjects. The CAD patients exhibited significantly increased levels of EMP along with impaired FMD when compared with the healthy control subjects. The levels of CD144⁺ and CD31⁺/41⁻ EMP were inversely correlated with FMD (r -0.67, P=0.01 and r -0.59, P=0.01, respectively). In these CAD patients, the levels of EMP were measured after they had consumed a drink containing 375 mg of CF (high-CF intervention, HiFI) or 9 mg of CF (macro- and micronutrient-matched low-CF control, LoFl) twice daily over a 30-d period in a randomised, double-blind, cross-over study. After 1 month of HiFI, the levels of CD31⁺/41⁻ and CD144⁺ EMP decreased (-25 and -23%, respectively), but not after LoFl. Our data show that flavanols lower the levels of EMP along with higher endothelial function, lending evidence to the novel concept that flavanols may improve endothelial integrity.

The zinc tetrathiolate (ZnS4) cluster is an important structural feature of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS). The cluster is located on the dimeric interface and four cysteine residues (C94 and C99 from two adjacent subunits) form a cluster with a Zn ion in the center of a tetrahedral configuration. Due to its high sensitivity to oxidants this cluster is responsible for eNOS dimer destabilization during periods of redox stress. In this work we utilized site directed mutagenesis to replace the redox sensitive cysteine residues in the ZnS4 cluster with redox stable tetra-arginines. Our data indicate that this C94R/C99R eNOS mutant is active. In addition, this mutant protein is insensitive to dimer disruption and inhibition when challenged with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Further, the overexpression of the C94R/C99R mutant preserved the angiogenic response in endothelial cells challenged with H2O2. The over-expression of the C94R/C99R mutant preserved the ability of endothelial cells to migrate towards vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and preserved the endothelial monolayer in a scratch wound assay. We propose that this dimer stable eNOS mutant could be utilized in the treatment of diseases in which there is eNOS dysfunction due to high levels of oxidative stress.

Pleiotrophin (PTN) is a growth factor with both pro-angiogenic and limited pro-tumorigenic activity. We evaluated the potential for PTN to be used for safe angiogenic gene therapy using the full length gene and a truncated gene variant lacking the domain implicated in tumorigenesis. Mouse myoblasts were transduced to express full length or truncated PTN (PTN or T-PTN), along with a LacZ reporter gene, and injected into mouse limb muscle and myocardium. In cultured myoblasts, PTN was expressed and secreted via the Golgi apparatus, but T-PTN was not properly secreted. Nonetheless, no evidence of uncontrolled growth was observed in cells expressing either form of PTN. PTN gene delivery to myocardium, and non-ischemic skeletal muscle, did not result in a detectable change in vascularity or function. In ischemic hindlimb at 14 days post-implantation, intramuscular injection with PTN-expressing myoblasts led to a significant increase in skin perfusion and muscle arteriole density. We conclude that (1) delivery of the full length PTN gene to muscle can be accomplished without tumorigenesis, (2) the truncated PTN gene may be difficult to use in a gene therapy context due to inefficient secretion, (3) PTN gene delivery leads to functional benefit in the mouse acute ischemic hindlimb model.

Nitric oxide (NO) exerts a wide range of cellular effects in the cardiovascular system. NO is short lived, but S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) functions as a stable intracellular bioavailable NO pool. Accordingly, increased levels can facilitate NO-mediated processes, and conversely, catabolism of GSNO by the regulatory enzyme GSNO reductase (GSNOR) can impair these processes. Because dysregulated GSNOR can interfere with processes relevant to cardiovascular health, it follows that inhibition of GSNOR may be beneficial. However, the effect of GSNOR inhibition on vascular activity is unknown. To study the effects of GSNOR inhibition on endothelial function, we treated rats with a small-molecule inhibitor of GSNOR (N6338) that has vasodilatory effects on isolated aortic rings and assessed effects on arterial flow-mediated dilation (FMD), an NO-dependent process. GSNOR inhibition with a single intravenous dose of N6338 preserved FMD (15.3 ± 5.4 vs. 14.2 ± 6.3%, P = nonsignificant) under partial NO synthase inhibition that normally reduces FMD by roughly 50% (14.1 ± 2.9 vs. 7.6 ± 4.4%, P < 0.05). In hypertensive rats, daily oral administration of N6338 for 14 days reduced blood pressure (170.0 ± 5.3/122.7 ± 6.4 vs. 203.8 ± 1.9/143.7 ± 7.5 mmHg for vehicle, P < 0.001) and vascular resistance index (1.5 ± 0.4 vs. 3.2 ± 1.0 mmHg · min · l(-1) for vehicle, P < 0.001), and restored FMD from an initially impaired state (7.4 ± 1.7%, day 0) to a level (13.0 ± 3.1%, day 14, P < 0.001) similar to that observed in normotensive rats. N6338 also reversed the pathological kidney changes exhibited by the hypertensive rats. GSNOR inhibition preserves FMD under conditions of impaired NO production and protects against both microvascular and conduit artery dysfunction in a model of hypertension.

Angiogenic therapy is a promising approach for tissue repair and regeneration. However, recent clinical trials with protein delivery or gene therapy to promote angiogenesis have failed to provide therapeutic effects. A key factor for achieving effective revascularization is the durability of the microvasculature and the formation of new arterial vessels. Accordingly, we carried out experiments to test whether intramyocardial injection of self-assembling peptide nanofibers (NFs) combined with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) could create an intramyocardial microenvironment with prolonged VEGF release to improve post-infarct neovascularization in rats. Our data showed that when injected with NF, VEGF delivery was sustained within the myocardium for up to 14 days, and the side effects of systemic edema and proteinuria were significantly reduced to the same level as that of control. NF/VEGF injection significantly improved angiogenesis, arteriogenesis, and cardiac performance 28 days after myocardial infarction. NF/VEGF injection not only allowed controlled local delivery but also transformed the injected site into a favorable microenvironment that recruited endogenous myofibroblasts and helped achieve effective revascularization. The engineered vascular niche further attracted a new population of cardiomyocyte-like cells to home to the injected sites, suggesting cardiomyocyte regeneration. Follow-up studies in pigs also revealed healing benefits consistent with observations in rats. In summary, this study demonstrates a new strategy for cardiovascular repair with potential for future clinical translation.

In humans, endothelial vasodilator function serves as a surrogate marker for cardiovascular health and is measured as changes in conduit artery diameter after temporary ischemia [flow-mediated dilation (FMD)]. Here we present an FMD-related approach to study femoral artery (FA) vasodilation in anesthetized rats. Diameter and Doppler flow were monitored in the FA. Using high-resolution ultrasound (35 MHz) and automated analysis software, we detected dose-dependent vasodilation using established endothelium-independent [intravenous nitroglycerin E[C.sub.50] = 3.3 x [10.sup.-6] mol/l, peak 21[DELTA]% (SD 4)] and endothelium-dependent [intra-arterial acetylcholine E[C.sub.50] = 1.3 x [10.sup.-6] mol/l, peak 27[DELTA]% (SD 4)] pharmacological vasodilators. Wall shear stress induced by intra-aortic injection of adenosine and infusion of saline at increasing rates (1.5-4.5 ml/min) led to vasodilation at 1 to 2 min. Transient hindlimb ischemia by common iliac occlusion (5 min) led to reactive hyperemia with flow velocity and wall shear stress increase and was followed by FA dilation [16A% (SD 2)], the latter of which was completely abolished by nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibition with [N.sup.G]-monomethyl-L-arginine [1[DELTA]% (SD 2)]. FMD was significantly reduced in adult 20-24-wk-old animals compared with 9- to 10-wk-old animals, consistent with age-dependent endothelial dysfunction [16[DELTA]% (SD 3) vs. 10[DELTA]% (SD 3), P < 0.05]. Whereas FMD was completely NOS dependent in 9- to 10-wk-old animals, NOS-dependent mechanisms accounted for only half of the FMD in 20-24-wk-old animals, with the remainder being blocked by charybdotoxin and apamin, suggesting a contribution of endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor. To our knowledge, this is the first integrative physiological model to reproducibly study FMD of conduit arteries in living rats. nitric oxide synthase; endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor; rodents; age-dependent endothelial dysfunction

The aim of this study was to determine the feasibility and accuracy of wall motion score index (WMSI) and myocardial performance index (MPI) for measuring regional and global left ventricular (LV) function with use of high-resolution echocardiography after myocardial infarction (MI) in mice. In 48 mice, myocardial infarction was induced by ligation in the middle of the left anterior descending coronary artery. Echocardiography was performed under anesthesia at baseline and 1 mo after MI. WMSI was analyzed by a 16-segment model on short-axis views, and wall motion was scored as 1 for normal, 2 for hypokinetic, 3 for akinetic, 4 for dyskinetic, and 5 for aneurysmal. WMSI was calculated as the sum of scores divided by the total number of segments. MPI was calculated on the basis of isovolumetric contraction time (IVCT), isovolumetric relaxation time (IVRT), and ejection time (ET): MPI = (IVCT + IVRT)/ET. We measured LV ejection fraction (LVEF), end-systolic and end-diastolic volumes (ESV and EDV), fractional shortening (FS), and infarct size (IS). LVEF at 4 wk after MI was reduced at 32.8 [+ or -] 9.0%. Linear correlation analyses showed that WMSI (1.6 [+ or -] 0.3) correlated with LVEF (r = -0.84, P < 0.0005), FS (r = -0.43, P = 0.003), and IS (34.3 [+ or -] 15.3%, r = 0.86, P < 0.0005). MPI (0.67 [+ or -] 0.09) correlated with LVEF (r = -0.67, P < 0.0005) and IS (r = 0.72, P < 0.0005). MPI also correlated with mitral inflow velocity (r = -0.68, P < 0.0005) and deceleration time (r = -0.42, P = 0.003). Stepwise regression analysis revealed that WMSI was independently associated with IS. IS, FS, mitral inflow velocity, and deceleration time were independent determinants of MPI. In conclusion, echocardiographic assessments of WMSI and MPI in mice are feasible and correlate strongly with two-dimensional measurement of LV function and IS. These novel parameters provide additional noninvasive assessment of regional and global LV function in mice after MI. experimental myocardial infarction; echocardiography; infarct size

Unlike during development, blood vessels in the adult are generally thought not to require VEGF for normal function. However, VEGF is a survival factor for many tumor vessels, and there are clues that some normal blood vessels may also depend on VEGF. In this study, we sought to identify which, if any, vascular beds in adult mice depend on VEGF for survival. Mice were treated with a small-molecule VEGF receptor (VEGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor or soluble VEGFRs for 1-3 wk. Blood vessels were assessed using immunohistochemistry or scanning or transmission electron microscopy. In a study of 17 normal organs after VEGF inhibition, we found significant capillary regression in pancreatic islets, thyroid, adrenal cortex, pituitary, choroid plexus, small-intestinal villi, and epididymal adipose tissue. The amount of regression was dose dependent and varied from organ to organ, with a maximum of 68% in thyroid, but was less in normal organs than in tumors in RIP-Tag2-transgenic mice or in Lewis lung carcinoma. VEGF-dependent capillaries were fenestrated, expressed high levels of both VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3, and had normal pericyte coverage. Surviving capillaries in affected organs had fewer fenestrations and less VEGFR expression. All mice appeared healthy, but distinct physiological changes, including more efficient blood glucose handling, accompanied some regimens of VEGF inhibition. Strikingly, most capillaries in the thyroid grew back within 2 wk after cessation of treatment for 1 wk. Our findings of VEGF dependency of normal fenestrated capillaries and rapid regrowth after regression demonstrate the plasticity of the adult microvasculature. vascular endothelial growth factor inhibitors; endothelial fenestration; immunohistochemistry; electron microscopy

The mouse is an important model for the development of therapeutic stem cell/bone marrow cell implantation to treat ischemic myocardium. However, its small heart size hampers accurate implantation into the left ventricular (LV) wall. Precise injections have required surgical visualization of the heart, which is subject to complications and is impractical for delayed or repeated injections. Furthermore, the thickness of the myocardium is comparable to the length of a needle bevel, so surgical exposure does not prevent inadvertent injection into the LV cavity. We describe the use of high-resolution echocardiography to guide nonsurgical injections accurately into the mouse myocardial wall. We optimized this system by using a mixture of ultrasound contrast and fluorescent microspheres injected into the myocardium, which enabled us to interpret the ultrasound image of the needle during injection. Quantitative dye injection studies demonstrated that guided closed-chest injections and open-chest injections deliver comparable amounts of injectate to the myocardium. We successfully used this system in a mouse myocardial infarction model to target the injection of labeled cells to a region adjacent to the infarct. Intentional injection of tracer into the LV cavity resulted in a small accumulation in the myocardium, suggesting that nonguided cell injections into mouse hearts may appear to be successful even if the majority of the injectate is lost in the chamber. The use of this system will allow more precise cellular implantation into the mouse myocardium by accurately guiding injections to desired locations, confirming successful implantation of cells, in a clinically relevant time frame. ultrasound; cell implantation; gene therapy; imaging; stem cells