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Cooled spray (CS) technology passively reduces particulate matter (PM) emissions from diesel engines compared to non-CS-equipped diesel engines. CS inserts are mounted near the injector nozzle and control mixing so that the fuel and air can premix while limiting combustion near fuel-rich zones, thereby reducing the formation of particulate matter. CS components contain no moving parts and could be installed as a retrofit or built into new engines. However, CS technology is early in its development, and further investigations are needed to understand the overall performance implications and practicality of the technology. In this paper, we investigate several important aspects of CS, providing a clearer picture of some challenges and potential benefits of CS. Two alignment techniques are used to characterize measurement ease and bias, namely, an optical alignment and spray-plug impact alignment. While the optical technique facilitates alignment more easily, a bias was measured between the optical and spray-plug techniques, suggesting the optical technique may have insufficient accuracy without additional corrections. We also evaluate the engine performance of a well-aligned and poorly aligned CS insert, compared to the baseline configuration. The poorly aligned insert shows slower combustion than the baseline and mixed overall performance. However, the well-aligned insert shows faster combustion than the baseline and PM emission reduction at most operating conditions, with some conditions showing PM reduction up to 80%. The results of this paper highlight the alignment challenges of CS technology as well as the potential PM reduction benefit of the technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Calcium foliar applications are known to effectively enhance peach quality; however, the optimal implementation strategy regarding fruit developmental stages and cultivars remains unclear. In this study, three different moments of fruit Ca applications in peach and nectarine are tested: Early season, Mid-season, and Late season. For this aim, the 44Ca isotope was used as a tracer, enabling the quantification and location of the Ca derived from the foliar fertilizer. Stone, flesh, and skin 44Ca enrichment was separately analyzed at harvest. The results indicate that Ca absorption in the fruits from external CaCl2 applications was influenced by the timing of the application during fruit development, with Late-season applications proving to be the most effective in increasing the Ca content in the fruit, corresponding with a higher fruit size at the application moment. Nevertheless, no differences in the absorption efficiency were found between the three timings of the application. Furthermore, the Ca from the foliar fertilizer in the fruit predominately remained in the flesh, followed by the skin. The Ca derived from the foliar fertilizer reached the stone in all of the experimental situations, but the Early- and Mid-season applications resulted in the highest amount of Ca derived from the fertilizer in this part of the fruit. Interestingly, the peach exhibited a higher Ca absorption efficiency compared to the nectarine, likely due to the presence of trichomes that retain the foliar fertilizer on the fruit surface. In conclusion, the Ca absorption and distribution in peaches depends on the cultivar and timing of the Ca application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Calcium foliar applications are known to effectively enhance peach quality; however, the optimal implementation strategy regarding fruit developmental stages and cultivars remains unclear. In this study, three different moments of fruit Ca applications in peach and nectarine are tested: Early season, Mid-season, and Late season. For this aim, the 44Ca isotope was used as a tracer, enabling the quantification and location of the Ca derived from the foliar fertilizer. Stone, flesh, and skin 44Ca enrichment was separately analyzed at harvest. The results indicate that Ca absorption in the fruits from external CaCl2 applications was influenced by the timing of the application during fruit development, with Late-season applications proving to be the most effective in increasing the Ca content in the fruit, corresponding with a higher fruit size at the application moment. Nevertheless, no differences in the absorption efficiency were found between the three timings of the application. Furthermore, the Ca from the foliar fertilizer in the fruit predominately remained in the flesh, followed by the skin. The Ca derived from the foliar fertilizer reached the stone in all of the experimental situations, but the Early- and Mid-season applications resulted in the highest amount of Ca derived from the fertilizer in this part of the fruit. Interestingly, the peach exhibited a higher Ca absorption efficiency compared to the nectarine, likely due to the presence of trichomes that retain the foliar fertilizer on the fruit surface. In conclusion, the Ca absorption and distribution in peaches depends on the cultivar and timing of the Ca application.

Scientific relevance. Medicinal products formulated as aerosols and sprays are increasingly used in clinical practice, which makes the control of their quality, including microbiological testing, a highly topical issue. The current regulatory standards for microbiological testing of medicines provide little information on the quality control of metereddose aerosols. Proper microbiological sampling of these medicinal products can be difficult because of their primary packaging. The specialised analytical procedures set forth in international standards require verification and standardisation before use. Medicinal products in the form of sprays, despite being free from the disadvantages of aerosols, are more susceptible to the risk of microbial contamination.Aim. The study aimed to describe specific aspects of sampling, to analyse the results of microbiological testing of aerosols and sprays, and to study the spectrum of microbial contaminants in these dosage forms.Materials and methods. The authors retrospectively analysed the microbiological quality and sterility data for 181 batches of sprays, aerosols, and other inhalation dosage forms. The data were obtained at the Scientific Centre for Expert Evaluation of Medicinal Products of the Ministry of Health of Russia in 2020–2022. The Microbiology Laboratory tested the dosage forms according to the specifications provided by the manufacturers. The analysts used well-established testing procedures outlined in the current pharmacopoeias of the Russian Federation and the Eurasian Economic Union.Results. The microbial counts exceeded the acceptable limits in 2.8% of the batches tested. The authors identified the microbial species that contaminated the medicinal products found to be non-compliant with regulatory requirements. Most of the non-compliant sprays that contained benzalkonium chloride as an antibacterial preservative were contaminated with Burkholderia cepacia complex species.Conclusions. The authors consider it relevant to conduct research aiming at using the findings on potential contaminants to improve microbiological testing procedures for aerosols and sprays.

Diesel-fueled engines still hold a large market share in the medium and heavy-duty transportation sector. However, the increase in fossil fuel prices and the strict emission regulations are leading engine manufacturers to seek cleaner alternatives without a compromise in performance. Alcohol-based fuels, such as ethanol, offer a promising alternative to diesel fuel in meeting regulatory demands. Ethanol provides cleaner combustion and lower levels of soot due to its chemical properties, in particular its lower level of carbon content. In addition, the stoichiometric operating conditions of alcohol fueled engines enable the mitigation of NOx emissions in aftertreatment stage. With the promise of retrofitting diesel engines to run on ethanol to reduce emissions, the thermal efficiency of these engines remains the primary optimization target. In order to find the optimal ethanol-fueled engine design that maximizes the thermal efficiency, a large design space needs to be investigated using engineering tools. In this study, previous research by the authors on optimizing the design of a single-cylinder ethanol-fueled engine was extended to explore the design space for a heavy-duty multicylinder engine configuration. A heavy-duty engine setup with multiple operating conditions at different engine speeds and loads was considered. A design optimization analysis was performed to identify the potential designs that maximize the indicated thermal efficiency in an ethanol-fueled compression ignition engine. First, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model of the engine was validated using experimental data for four drive cycle points. Using a design of experiments (DoE) approach and a parameterized piston bowl geometry, the model was then exercised to explore the relationship among geometric features of the piston bowl and spray targeting angle and indicated thermal efficiency across all tested operating conditions. After evaluating 165 candidate designs, a piston bowl geometry was identified that yielded an increase between 1.3% and 2.2% points in indicated thermal efficiency for all tested conditions, while satisfying the operational design constraints for peak pressure and maximum pressure rise rate. The increased performance was attributed to enhance mixing that led to the formation of a more homogeneous distribution of in-cylinder temperature and equivalence ratio, higher combustion temperatures, and shorter combustion duration. Finally, a Bayesian optimization (BOpt) analysis was employed to find the optimal piston bowl geometry with a fixed spray injector angle for one of the operating conditions. Using BOpt, a piston candidate was identified that resulted in a 1.9% point increase in thermal efficiency from the baseline design, yet only required 65% of the design samples investigated using the DoE approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sensitive skin is described as an unpleasant sensory response to a stimulus that should not cause a sensation. Sensitive skin affects an increasing proportion of the population. Sixty-seven participants who tested positive to lactic acid sting test were recruited and randomized into two groups to observe the clinical efficacy and safety of a new birch juice spray for repairing sensitive skin. One group used test spray A, while the other group used spray B as a control. Both groups were sprayed six times daily for 28 days. Noninvasive testing instruments were used to measure stratum corneum hydration, sebum content, transepidermal water loss rates, skin blood perfusion and current perception threshold before and after using spray. Facial images were captured by VISIA-CR, and the image analysis program (Image‐Pro Plus) was used to analyze these to obtain the redness value of the facial skin. Moreover, lactic acid sting test scores and participants' self-assessments were also performed at baseline, week 2 and week 4. Both sprays A and B significantly decreased the lactic acid sting test score, transepidermal water loss rates, skin blood perfusion, and redness, while increasing the stratum corneum hydration. Compared to spray B, spray A increased sensory nerve thresholds at 5 Hz and decreased the transepidermal water loss rates, skin blood perfusion, and lactic acid sting test score. Sprays containing birch juice improved cutaneous biophysical properties in participants with sensitive skin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finsler metrics being Ricci-quadratic is a non-Riemannian condition since the Ricci curvature (tensor) is always Ricci-quadratic for Riemannian metrics. In this paper, we introduce the notion of strongly Ricci-quadratic Finsler metrics. We classify strongly Ricci-quadratic Randers metrics expressed in a navigation form. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parcel-based simulations are the most common method to simulate fuel sprays, especially for reacting conditions, due to their lower computational cost compared to more highly resolved simulations. It is important, however, to understand how spray boundary conditions are used to initialize the parcels that represent the atomizing fluid affect downstream conditions and overall simulation performance. Traditionally, when parcel simulations are used, the injector tip geometry is either significantly simplified or removed altogether due to resolution limits. Recent advances in computational power and numerical methods, however, have made it possible to resolve flow through these features. Previous work has shown some potential effects of even simple injector tip geometries, and this study investigates the effect of very detailed nozzle geometries on parcel-based simulations that have typically ignored these details. Four different parameters were investigated: whether a simulation includes a detailed injector tip geometry or a flat surface; whether parcels are initialized at the counterbore exit, which is more common, or at the nozzle exit; the use of an experimentally derived rate of injection or one-way coupling with a separate internal nozzle volume of fluid (VOF) simulation; the use of nominal or measured injector geometry. Simulations were compared using both global penetrations as well as local data near the injector. Spray penetration and other global measures showed limited sensitivity to boundary conditions/initialization procedure, but local data such as the local liquid volume fraction showed greater variation between the conditions, which may have an impact on mixing and combustion predictions in engine applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, we investigate qualitative backlight imaging-based spray characteristics and laser-induced incandescence (LII) based quantitative soot volume fraction (SVF) in a CFM56 model combustor with a simplex nozzle at 1 bar, 303 K. The soot volume fraction is quantitatively measured using an in situ extinction-based calibration technique. Soot was detected immediately downstream of the swirler exit and in the shear layer region as observed by other authors. In addition, soot was also detected inside the inner recirculation region which could be due to the spray distribution, geometry, or difference in flame anchoring. The number-averaged soot volume fraction is of the order of 20 ppb which is comparable in magnitude to previously reported combustor measurements. Large eddy simulation (LES) modeling of the experimental setup coupled with the simple two-equation Tesner model has been done using ansysfluent® to study soot formation. The model shows good qualitative agreement with the experimental results although quantitatively it is lower by one order of magnitude. Soot formation occurs in the rich region immediately downstream of the swirler while the second half of the primary zone becomes lean and soot oxidation is more dominant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The application of nutrient solutions to the foliage of plants is an alternative means to fertilise crops. Foliar fertilisation is used to overcome the disadvantages of soil applications. Variable plant responses to these foliar fertilisation spray solutions have often been described in the literature. However, knowledge about the penetration mechanisms, the role of a leaf-applied inorganic or organic solution, and the results obtained by its application is still limited. The complex character of the factors determining the effects of sprays hinders the development of suitable foliar fertilisation strategies, applicable under variable local conditions and for various plant types. This review describes some basic factors involved in the penetration process of foliar sprays in olive (Olea europaea L.) trees. Chemistry, leaf penetration, and plant nutrition principles will be merged with the aim of clarifying the constraints, opportunities, and future perspectives of sprays to cure olive tree nutrient deficiencies and, hence, both increase the yield and improve the fruit quality.

Predicting the spray evolution using simulations requires accurate modeling of the turbulent gas-phase flow field. In this study, the high-order spectral-element method (SEM), implemented in the code Nek5000, was used to provide highly resolved solutions to the turbulent flow field. Spray modeling capabilities were implemented into the Nek5000 code. The spray is modeled in a Lagrangian-Eulerian (LE) framework, where the liquid is represented by discrete parcels of droplets. The method for coupling liquid and gas in the context of SEM is described, which allows for very fine meshes to be used without affecting the stability of the solution. Large-eddy simulations (LES) of the eight-hole ECN Spray G gasoline injector were conducted. Numerical results are compared against experimental data for liquid penetration, droplet size and gas velocity. The morphology of the multiplume spray is compared against experimental data. The effect of different spray injection inputs is analyzed. It was found that using a plume direction of 33 deg and an injection cone angle of 30 deg produced the best results overall. This work shows the applicability of SEM for spray modeling applications, where use of a high-order flow solver can help us understand the multiplume spray aerodynamics and how it leads to plume collapse under certain conditions. Results also highlight the need for tuning spray input parameters in the LE framework, even when high-fidelity gas flow solutions are possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper shows the existence of some Ricci-flat warped f-Product Finsler metrics. We investigate the general structure of this newly defined warped f-Product Finsler metrics, indeed we identify the metric form, spray coefficients of geodesics of the metric, and also the Ricci curvature in regards to the α1 and α2 Riemanian metrics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the role of hydrodynamic instabilities on near-lean blowout (LBO) flame shapes in a swirl-stabilized spray combustor. Hydrodynamic instabilities often manifest themselves in swirling flows as a helical vortex that winds around the vortex breakdown bubble. However, the heat released from combustion tends to suppress coherent vortex structures, which can limit the helical vortex to certain combustor geometries and operating conditions. Flame shape changes often accompany changes in hydrodynamic stability because they reposition the heat release and consequently modify the degree of coherent vortex suppression. In this study, laser diagnostics measurements were used to characterize the flow fields and spray patterns corresponding to different flame shapes that were observed in the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) referee combustor. In particular, the flame fluctuated between its original shape, FS1, and a new flame shape, FS2, when the combustor operated on the threshold of LBO. Proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) was used to analyze the measurements. POD showed that the appearance of FS2 coincided with coherent vortex structures that resembled those in the hydrodynamically unstable nonreacting flow field. Furthermore, fuel Mie scattering measurements and phase-averages of the velocity field provided evidence that the FS2 spray was periodically disturbed by a helical vortex. Near the swirler exit, this helical vortex structure involved both outer and inner shear layer vortices that appeared to be synchronized with each other. However, the inner shear layer vortices decayed as the flow progressed downstream and only the outer shear layer vortices remained throughout the measurements' field of view. In contrast, there was no indication of a helical vortex structure in either the flow field or fuel spray measurements corresponding to FS1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solution-based mesh adaption approaches have been widely studied and tested by different research groups to generate the required finer meshes in the critical regions on the fly while keeping the overall mesh count to a manageable level. However, these approaches are typically applicable for a set of problems, and therefore, there is a need for a generic approach suitable for a broader range of problems. This work explores various parameters and specific weightage factors to predict correct flame-tracking outcomes for different types of flames. The selections of flow quantities (flow variables, their gradients, curvatures) are performed using simple flames and flow configurations. The functions based on selected flow-quantities derived from these studies are then tested to predict the results for the more complex set of published flames like the Engine Combustion Network (ECN) spray flame and Knowledge for Ignition, Acoustics, and Instabilities (KIAI) five-burner configuration (liquid and gas fuel). Derived adaption criteria are found to predict the correct flame tracking behavior in terms of transient evolution of flame front, flame propagation, and ignition timing of burners. The parameters used for the study are identified keeping genericity as the key point, and thus making sure that the derived adaption functions can be applied across different types of fuel blends, combustion systems (gaseous or liquid fuel-based systems) and combustion models, for example, species transport or mixture fraction-based models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oral mucosal disease is a general term for a type of disease that mainly affects the oral mucosa and surrounding soft tissues. In the treatment of oral mucosal diseases, due to the particularity of the anatomical location, the use of topical administration is relatively simple and convenient; drugs can easily accumulate in the lesions, and at the same time, they can also avoid adverse reactions caused by systemic drug delivery. Topical administration has become an important and even preferred option for the treatment of oral mucosal diseases. There are various types of topically used drugs for oral mucosal diseases, such as glucocorticoids (triamcinolone acetonide), immunomodulatory drugs (tacrolimus), antiseptic drugs (chlorhexidine), pain relievers (lidocaine) and proprietary Chinese medicines (aloe vera gel). Among these drugs, although the most widely used liquid formulations such as gargles and sprays are easy to use, they are not conducive to local retention of drugs due to the particularity of the oral environment and function. Based on this, researchers have continuously improved the dosage form of the drug, and developed a series of semi-solid pharmaceutical preparations such as gels and ointments, some of which have exerted good curative effects in clinical work. In addition, although films, patches and other solid oral mucosal topical pharmaceutical preparations have few clinical applications, they have also been widely researched and described and are expected to become the mainstream dosage form in the future. In general, with the improvement of dosage forms, topical administration is playing an increasingly important role in the treatment of oral mucosal diseases. Therefore, combined with basic research and clinical reports, this article reviews the application of topical drug delivery in the treatment of oral mucosal diseases.

The present review describes the current achievements in the applications of a planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) method for the diagnostics of liquid films, bubbles, individual droplets, and sprays. Such flows are related with strongly curved interphases, which often results in additional high errors during the PLIF data quantification because of laser light reflection, refraction, and absorption. The present review demonstrates that a two-color PLIF approach and a PLIF modification for regularly structured illumination resolves the reflection- and refraction-caused errors. The latter modification ensures proper phase separation in the measurement cross-section and visualization of the interface dynamics. The former approach provides the accurate evaluation of the local temperature and concentration both in liquid and gaseous phases even in the case of strong variations of the laser sheet intensity. With intensified cameras, the PLIF method is used for multi-parameter diagnostics of the two-phase combustion of sprays in combustion chambers with optical access. It visualizes and quantifies the liquid fuel evaporation and mixing, to measure temperature in the gas and liquid phases and to reveal the regions of pollutant formation. The PLIF technique can also be easily combined with a particle image (or tracking) velocimetry method, to evaluate local heat and mass transfer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A common feature of many free surface flows—drop/bubble breakup or coalescence and film/sheet rupture—is the occurrence of hydrodynamic singularities. Accurately computing such flows with continuum mechanical, multidimensional free surface flow algorithms is a challenging task given these problems' multiscale nature, which necessitates capturing dynamics occurring over disparate length scales across 5–6 orders of magnitude. In drop breakup, the thinning of fluid threads that form and eventually pinch-off must be simulated until the thread's radius is about 10 nm. When two drops approach one another, the thickness of the fluid film separating them must fall below 10 nm before coalescence is said to have occurred. If the initial drop radii are 1 mm, simulations must remain faithful to the physics as thread radius or film thickness falls from 10−3 m to below 10−8 m. Here we review significant findings in interfacial flows with hydrodynamic singularities spearheaded by sharp interface algorithms. These multidimensional algorithms can achieve resolution that to date has only been possible with the use of simple 1D evolution equations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The application of nutrient solutions to the foliage of plants is an alternative means to fertilise crops. Foliar fertilisation is used to overcome the disadvantages of soil applications. Variable plant responses to these foliar fertilisation spray solutions have often been described in the literature. However, knowledge about the penetration mechanisms, the role of a leaf-applied inorganic or organic solution, and the results obtained by its application is still limited. The complex character of the factors determining the effects of sprays hinders the development of suitable foliar fertilisation strategies, applicable under variable local conditions and for various plant types. This review describes some basic factors involved in the penetration process of foliar sprays in olive (Olea europaea L.) trees. Chemistry, leaf penetration, and plant nutrition principles will be merged with the aim of clarifying the constraints, opportunities, and future perspectives of sprays to cure olive tree nutrient deficiencies and, hence, both increase the yield and improve the fruit quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Leidenfrost droplets move due to reactive force. • Reactive force arises due to the evaporation of liquid. • Deformation of the droplet is responsible for changing the direction of the reactive force. • Chaotic movement of the droplet is caused by changing the direction of the reactive force. One of the most effective methods for cooling overheated surfaces is drip irrigation. If the surface temperature exceeds the Leidenfrost temperature, then a vapor film is formed between the droplet and the surface, which leads not only to a decrease in heat transfer intensity but also causes droplet mobility. For a number of applications, the mobility of droplets is an undesirable phenomenon, so the analysis of the factors responsible for their movement is a relevant task. Here we analyze the movement mechanism of the Leidenfrost droplets with variations in the composition and volume of the droplets. The data obtained show that the droplet speed increases with an increase in the droplet volume. However, smaller droplets change direction of motion more often than larger droplets. To substantiate the experimental data, a hypothesis is proposed, according to which the mechanism of movement of Leidenfrost droplets is caused by the reactive force that arises due to the evaporation of liquid. A Leidenfrost droplet changes the direction of its movement due to the deformation of its surface under the influence of gravity and capillary force. To substantiate the experimental data a simple phenomenological model is proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, a novel Ni–Cu/Al 2 O 3 catalyst is used to trigger the partial oxidation of methanol (POM) for hydrogen production. This reaction system also employed ultrasonic sprays to aid in dispersing methanol fuel. The prepared catalyst is analyzed by scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) to explore the catalyst's surface structure, elemental composition, and physical structure, respectively. The Box-Behnken design (BBD) of response surface methodology (RSM) is utilized for experimental design to achieve process optimization. The operating parameters comprise the O 2 /C molar ratio (0.5–0.7), preheating temperature (150–250 °C), and weight percent (wt%) of Ni (10–30%) in the catalyst. The results show that methanol conversion is 100% in all the operating conditions, while the reaction temperature for H 2 production ranges from 160 to 750 °C, stemming from heat released by POM. The significance and suitability of operating conditions are also analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA). It indicates that the highest H 2 yield is 2 mol (mol CH 3 OH)−1, occurring at O 2 /C = 0.5, preheating temperature = 150 °C, and Ni wt% = 10. Compared with the commercial h-BN-Pt/Al 2 O 3 catalyst, the prepared Ni–Cu/Al 2 O 3 catalysts have higher activity for H 2 production. The O 2 /C ratio is the most influential factor in the H 2 yield. Moreover, the interaction of the O 2 /C ratio and Ni content is sound, reflecting that changing Ni content in the catalyst will affect the trend of H 2 yield under each O 2 /C. • Three template-free Ni–Cu/Al 2 O 3 catalysts are prepared for methanol partial oxidation. • Response surface methodology is used to find the optimal operation for H 2 production. • Methanol conversion is 100% in all the operating conditions. • Highest H 2 yield is 2 mol (mol CH 3 OH)−1 occurring at O 2 /C = 0.5, 150 °C, and Ni wt% = 10. • Prepared Ni–Cu/Al 2 O 3 catalysts have higher activity for H 2 production than commercial one. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among seven insecticides evaluated azadirachtin 10000 ppm (1 ml/ l) was found to be the most effective against seed weevil Curculio c-album F., followed by deltamethrin 2.8EC (1.0 ml/ l) and malathion 50EC (2.0 ml/l). The least effective was spinosad 45SC (0.3 ml/ l) followed by cyantraniliprole 10.26OD (1.8 ml/l). Three rounds of sprays (new flush, pre bloom and post bloom) of insecticides gave better protection when compared to single/ two sprays. Maximum healthy fruit yield (49.81 kg/ tree) was obtained with azadirachtin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spraying refers to the process of forming small droplets of a liquid and dispersing them in air or on the surface of an object. Spraying is ubiquitous because it enables a liquid widely and uniformly dispersed. The existing spraying methods can be broadly categorized as ultrasonic, liquid compression, and two-phase nozzle-based. These different methods utilize different principles, with advantages and disadvantages. Thus, it is necessary to understand how different methods are suited to the applications of interest. In particular, the droplet size plays a significant role. Many studies have been conducted to characterize different spraying methods, but little systematic organization and summarization with respect to the droplet size has been done. Herein, we introduce the most widely used spraying methods and explain their spraying principles, fields of use, and appropriate operating environments. We focus on the droplet size aspect. This review is likely to be useful in the design and development of spraying devices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predicting the performance of finely atomized sprays used for airborne dust suppression is an important aspect in ensuring workers are properly protected from harmful dust emissions in the industries that rely on bulk materials handling and processing. It is well known that finely atomized sprays are effective for airborne dust capture, however there is less understanding of the best methods for predicting spray dispersion especially in adverse conditions, such as when exposed to high cross-winds. This study aims to evaluate the ability for CFD to be used in the prediction of spray performance in applications relating to airborne dust suppression. An Eulerian-Lagrangian approach is evaluated against available experimental data of sprays operating in quiescent conditions and with a perpendicularly applied cross-wind. Varying levels of agreement have been achieved based on a given set of input parameters: prediction of spray velocity was found to be within 20% of measured values, droplet size was within 13% and mist penetration within 10%. The results demonstrate the potential for CFD to be practically applied in the design of dust suppression systems, especially in regard to mist penetration or reach, which is one of the primary concerns when selecting appropriate nozzle designs and operating parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• This review provides the academic definition and categorizing criterion of flow control for atomization and sprays for the first time. • With a focus on practical requirements, we introduce the conceptual descriptions, key principles, successful applications, significant conclusions, and major drawbacks of the most typical control methods. • future directions and perspectives are included. The enhancement and inhibition of atomization and sprays cover various fields such as industry, agriculture, and biomedical, among others. However, due to the complex mechanisms involved, no reference has provided a comprehensive introduction and systematic classification of these relatively isolated contents. An initial classification of flow control depends on the controlled objectives: indirect for sprays and direct for sprays. However, this formulation is not comprehensive, and this review paper further extends and expands on this basis: the former is the regulation of the internal flow of the nozzle, called as the flow control of atomization. The latter focuses more on the interaction of the external flow of the nozzle, called as the flow control of the sprays. This review provides the academic definition and categorizing criterion of flow control for atomization and sprays for the first time, clearly presenting multifarious techniques for readers. With a focus on practical requirements, we introduce the conceptual descriptions, key principles, successful applications, significant conclusions, and major drawbacks of the typical control methods. Finally, future directions and perspectives are included. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various industrial devices and systems make use of collisions of droplets with solid particles in aerosol flows. The characteristics of these collisions are usually predicted adopting the same approaches as for binary collisions of a liquid droplet with a solid particle. However, the conditions of such binary collisions are different from those in the spray composition. There are very few experimental findings for sprays. The purpose of this research was to experimentally determine the characteristics of interaction of droplets with particles of slurry fuel components in sprays. High-speed three-dimensional video recording made it possible to identify conditions when liquid droplets break up, and droplets and particles agglomerate to form slurry droplets. Droplet-particle interaction regimes were identified. Collective effects in a cascade of droplet-particle interactions were recognized. The frequency of collision regime occurrence was determined, considering the recorded collective effects in sprays. The characteristics of droplet-particle collisions in sprays were compared with those of binary interactions. Conditions were determined when the findings on binary collisions can be adapted to different systems with multi-phase sprays. The findings obtained promote research and development in the field of secondary atomization of composite fuel droplets. [Display omitted] • Conditions of mixing sprays to produce slurry droplets were identified • Frequency of droplet-particle collision regime occurrence in sprays was determined • Joint effects in cascade droplet-particle collisions in sprays were recognized • The required conditions for effective wet dust collection was determined • The droplet and particle velocity decreases by 40–100 % after the contact [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During 2019 and 2020 the field study was conducted at In Khelvachauri district (village Sameba) of Adjara, Georgia. Blight caused by Phytophthora infestans and Ph. parasitica is an important disease of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). Study was aimed to determine the efficacies of different doses of biopreparation of Gaupsin against Phytophthora of tomato. Five tomato varieties (Jina, Florida 47, Shady-Lady, Adlia and Choportula) were sown in five replications with one standard check in tunnel. Gaupsin were applied after 7 days intervals. Disease data was recorded after ten days interval from flowering stage to onward. Average yield of each variety was calculated afters pickings. Studies show that over both years, all doses of gaupsin reduce disease severity compared to untreated plants. The highest reduction in the disease was achieved by applying gaupsin 12 mg/ml and 14 mg/ml of water at an interval of 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. Plants had increased leaf, shoot, fruit and root biomass. Among the five cultivars tested, Jima produces higher yields (6150 g) per plant, followed by Florida 47 (6000 g) and Shady Lady (5150 g) compared to Choportula (4300 g) and Adlia (3750 g). Overall results revealed that weekly sprays of gaupsin at 12 mg/ml of water were cost effective and eco-friendly for the management of Phytophthora blight of tomato. Based on a general analysis, it is very clearly shown that the investigation is an important step towards developing plant bioprotection strategies for antifungal activity against the important phytopathogen. That can be beneficial for farmers and researchers who involve in agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An infection of the foot with fungi, such as the Athlete's foot, is frequently observed globally, both in men and women. In the present review, different marketed products used in treating Athlete's foot disease were critically analysed and compared. The marketed products include Oral medications and Topical medications like creams, gels, dusting powders, and sprays to meet the needs of Athlete's foot disease patients. Oral products are prescribed only when topical treatments are unsuccessful and the infection becomes systemic or deep-rooted. They may cause mild side effects like nausea, dizziness, and digestive problems to serious side effects like liver damage. In comparison to oral medications, topical fungal therapy is usually preferred due to no systemic side effects, ability to bypass first-pass metabolism, and minimum toxicity. Gels are preferred over creams for being effective and easily washable. With powders, moisture retention may delay the healing process leading to secondary infections with bacteria. Sprays can release the drug easily in hard-to-reach corners of the body. However, propellants used in them are inflammable, and the products are expensive. Oral products are best for treating chronic infections despite their side effects, and topicals are suitable for mild infections, with sprays being the most convenient formulation. Several studies have indicated that topical nanocarriers with antifungal agents display superior therapeutic efficacy and minimal toxicity due to their ability to overcome challenges associated with conventional drug delivery systems like poor retention and low bioavailability. There is a good scope for developing topical nanocarrier-based antifungal formulations to treat Athlete's foot disease with minimum side effects effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gasoline compression ignition (GCI) is a promising combustion technology that could help alleviate the projected demand for diesel in commercial transport while providing a pathway to achieve upcoming CO2 and criteria pollutant regulations for heavy-duty engines. However, relatively high (i.e., diesel-like) injection pressures are needed to enable GCI across the entire load range while maintaining soot emissions benefits and managing heat release rates. There have only been a limited number of previous studies investigating the spray characteristics of light distillates with high-pressure direct-injection hardware under charge gas conditions relevant to heavy-duty applications. The current work aims to address this issue while providing experimental data needed for calibrating spray models used in simulation-led design activities. The non-reacting spray characteristics of two gasoline-like fuels relevant to GCI were studied and compared to ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD). These fuels shared similar physical properties and were thus differentiated based on their research octane number (RON). Although RON60 and RON92 had different reactivities, it was hypothesized that they would exhibit similar non-reacting spray characteristics due to their physical similarities. Experiments were conducted in an optically accessible, constant volume combustion chamber using a single-hole injector representing high-pressure, common-rail fuel systems. Shadowgraph and Mie-scattering techniques were employed to measure the spray dispersion angles and penetration lengths under both non-vaporizing and vaporizing conditions. Gasoline-like fuels exhibited similar or larger non-vaporizing dispersion angle compared to ULSD. All fuels followed a typical correlation based on air-to-fuel density ratio indicating that liquid density is the main governing fuel parameter. Injection pressure had a negligible effect on the dispersion angle. Gasoline-like fuels had slower non-vaporizing penetration rates compared to ULSD, primarily due to their larger dispersion angles. As evidenced by the collapse of data onto a non-dimensional penetration correlation over a wide range of test conditions, all fuels conformed to the expected physical theory governing non-vaporizing sprays. There was no significant trend in the vaporizing dispersion angle with respect to fuel type which remained relatively constant across the entire charge gas temperature range of 800–1200 K. There was also no discernable difference in vapor penetration among the fuels or across charge temperature. The liquid length of gasoline-like fuels was much shorter than ULSD and exhibited no dependence on charge temperature at a given charge gas pressure. This behavior was attributed to gasoline being limited by interphase transport as opposed to mixing or air entrainment rates during its evaporation process. RON92 had a larger non-vaporizing dispersion angle but similar penetration compared to RON60. Although this seems to violate the original similarity hypothesis for these fuels, the analysis was made difficult due to the use of different injector builds for the experiments. However, RON92 did show a slightly larger vapor dispersion angle than RON60 and ULSD. This observation was attributed to nuanced volatility differences between the gasoline-like fuels and indicates that vapor dispersion angle likely relies on a more complex correlation beyond that of only air-to-fuel density ratio. Finally, RON92 showed the same quantitative liquid length and insensitivity to charge gas temperature as RON60.

Liquid filaments surrounded by a gas arise in nature and applications. As filaments contract, they either retract into spheres or disintegrate to form numerous droplets. In most previous computational studies, the filament's initial shape at time t = 0 has been idealized as a perfect cylinder capped off at both ends by identical hemispheres (radii R) and the fluid within which is at rest. Motivated by the fact that in experiments and applications the filament fluid is often not quiescent at t = 0, the effect of a nonzero initial velocity profile is examined for Newtonian filaments. A comprehensive phase diagram is presented in the space of L0 (initial aspect ratio) and vz,max (initial tip velocity) for filaments of intermediate Ohnesorge number Oh≡μ/ργR (density ρ, viscosity μ, and surface tension γ) that delineates regions of the parameter space where breakup occurs from those where filaments contract to spheres without breakup. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An on-going challenge with Gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines is achieving rapid activation of the exhaust catalyst during cold starts, in order to reduce the Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) emissions. Injecting late in the compression stroke, in the efforts to form a stratified mixture, provides the fuel insufficient time to be entrained with the surrounding charge. This results in locally fuel rich diffusion combustion and the formation of high levels of particulate matter. Employing a split injection strategy can help tackle these issues. The current study examines the effects of a split injection strategy on the spray characteristics. Varying pulse width (PW) combinations, split ratios and dwell times are investigated using a Solenoid actuated high pressure injector. The injected quantity and the droplet characteristics of a target plume are investigated. The experiments were performed in a constant volume spray chamber. The droplet velocities and sizes were measured using Phase Doppler Particle Anemometry (PDA). Short and large PWs, in the range of 0.3–0.8 ms, were investigated. The results revealed that the highest injected quantity of fuel was measured with the shortest dwell time of 2 ms, owing to increased interactions between the injection events, which led to larger Sauter mean diameters (SMDs) measured. The SMDs for the shorter PW of 0.4 ms were generally larger than 0.8 ms PW. The droplets in this case were affected by the closely spaced opening and closing events of the Solenoid valve. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Noncombustible air fresheners are indoor air emission sources of concern. The associated health risks should be better understood. Based on 15 products (4 sprays, 6 passive diffusers, and 5 active diffusers), the health risk assessment (HRA) approach was applied to a national use survey in France and to concentrations measured in an experimental house. The targeted substances included volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbonyls, and fine particles (PM2.5). Mean‐use and reasonable worst‐case generic scenarios were designed. No situation of concern occurred regarding chronic exposure associated with the mean use. Under the reasonable worst‐case scenarios, the chronic risk could exceed selected health reference standards, mainly for acrolein (average inhaled concentration (AIC) up to 3.5 µg/m3), benzene (AIC up to 4 µg/m3), and limonene (AIC up to 8 mg/m3). The acute exposure, defined as a 1‐h exposure, could exceed selected health standards, primarily for acrolein (up to 23 µg/m3) and formaldehyde (up to approximately 370 µg/m3). Furthermore, the 1‐h average PM2.5 concentration, including ultrafine particles, could exceed 100 µg/m3, typically for sprays. These results suggest that the highest exposures should be reduced and, as such, that the emissions of the highest‐emissivity products should be lowered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study was carried out during both 2018 and 2019 growing seasons on 'Crimson Seedless' grape vine grown on sandy soil. Vines received water, salicylic acid 200 mg/L, chitosan 10 g/L, putrescine 5 mM, phenylalanine 400 mg/L, ascorbic acid 500 mg/L, citric acid 700 mg/L, gibberellic acid 20 mg/L, active dry yeast 15 g/L at véraison (change of color) stages and at 10 days before harvesting time. Fruit clusters were harvested when total soluble solids (TSS) reached 16%, stored at 0°C and 85--90 relative humidity for 35 days then kept 2 days at shelf life (25 ±2°C and air humidity 70 ±2). Results at harvest time showed that, salicylic acid, putrescine, gibberellic acid and yeast increased average berry weight and juice volume. Salicylic acid, chitosan, putrescine, citric acid and gibberellic acid maintained the berry adherence strength and firmness. Salicylic acid, chitosan, putrescine and phenylalanine increased berry red color, as well as berry anthocyanin, TSS and sugars content. Highest acidity content was obtained by salicylic acid, chitosan, citric acid and gibberellic acid spraying. Results after cold storage and shelf life showed that, berry weight loss decreased significantly by all chemical sprays, except phenylalanine. High maintenance of berry adherence strength and firmness occurred by gibberellic acid followed by putrescine. All chemicals reduced the unmarketable grapes except the phenylalanine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of swirl flow on the spray characteristics (structure, droplet diameter and droplet velocity) is experimentally investigated for varying air-to-liquid momentum ratios in this work. The diagnostic techniques employed include high-speed shadowgraphy and 1D-PDPA. A commercial pressure swirl injector is mounted in a swirl stabilized model gas turbine burner to investigate the spray characteristics with and without the presence of swirling flowfield under isothermal conditions. In the absence of the injector flow the burner produced a converging-diverging flowfield at the burner exit, influenced by the bluffbody effect near to the exit and the swirling intensity farther downstream. The investigations reveal an unmistakable influence of the swirling flow on the droplet size, velocity and spatial distribution. Under the investigated momentum flux ratios the conical spray structure is altered and the droplets size and velocity at each location changed with the spatial variation in the magnitude and nature of the swirling flowfield. In general fine droplets are produced near to the high velocity air inflow, and coarser droplets in the recirculation zone owing to the longer residence time. The mean axial velocity of the droplet reduced in presence of swirling flow, with the droplets showing negative velocities at downstream locations.

The present study was carried out during both 2018 and 2019 growing seasons on ‘Crimson Seedless’ grape vine grown on sandy soil. Vines received water, salicylic acid 200 mg/L, chitosan 10 g/L, putrescine 5 mM, phenylalanine 400 mg/L, ascorbic acid 500 mg/L, citric acid 700 mg/L, gibberellic acid 20 mg/L, active dry yeast 15 g/L at véraison (change of color) stages and at 10 days before harvesting time. Fruit clusters were harvested when total soluble solids (TSS) reached 16%, stored at 0°C and 85–90 relative humidity for 35 days then kept 2 days at shelf life (25 ±2°C and air humidity 70 ±2). Results at harvest time showed that, salicylic acid, putrescine, gibberellic acid and yeast increased average berry weight and juice volume. Salicylic acid, chitosan, putrescine, citric acid and gibberellic acid maintained the berry adherence strength and firmness. Salicylic acid, chitosan, putrescine and phenylalanine increased berry red color, as well as berry anthocyanin, TSS and sugars content. Highest acidity content was obtained by salicylic acid, chitosan, citric acid and gibberellic acid spraying. Results after cold storage and shelf life showed that, berry weight loss decreased significantly by all chemical sprays, except phenylalanine. High maintenance of berry adherence strength and firmness occurred by gibberellic acid followed by putrescine. All chemicals reduced the unmarketable grapes except the phenylalanine.

The present review describes the current achievements in the applications of a planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) method for the diagnostics of liquid films, bubbles, individual droplets, and sprays. Such flows are related with strongly curved interphases, which often results in additional high errors during the PLIF data quantification because of laser light reflection, refraction, and absorption. The present review demonstrates that a two-color PLIF approach and a PLIF modification for regularly structured illumination resolves the reflection- and refraction-caused errors. The latter modification ensures proper phase separation in the measurement cross-section and visualization of the interface dynamics. The former approach provides the accurate evaluation of the local temperature and concentration both in liquid and gaseous phases even in the case of strong variations of the laser sheet intensity. With intensified cameras, the PLIF method is used for multi-parameter diagnostics of the two-phase combustion of sprays in combustion chambers with optical access. It visualizes and quantifies the liquid fuel evaporation and mixing, to measure temperature in the gas and liquid phases and to reveal the regions of pollutant formation. The PLIF technique can also be easily combined with a particle image (or tracking) velocimetry method, to evaluate local heat and mass transfer.

Mixing controlled combustion of alcohol fuels has been identified as a promising technology based on their low propensity for particulate and NOx production, but the higher heats of vaporization and auto-ignition temperatures of these fuels make their direct use in diesel engine architectures a challenge. To realize the potential of alcohol-fueled combustion, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling framework is developed, validated, and exercised to identify designs that maximize engine thermal efficiency. To evaluate the use of thermal barrier coatings (TBCs), a simplified one-dimensional (1D) conjugate heat transfer (CHT) modeling framework is employed. The addition of the 1D CHT model only increases the computational expense by 15% relative to traditional approaches, yet offers more accurate heat transfer predictions over constant temperature boundary conditions. The validated model is then used to explore a range of injector orientations and piston bowl geometries. Using a design of experiments (DoE) approach, several designs were identified that improved fuel-air mixing, shortened the combustion duration, and increased thermal efficiency. The most promising design was fabricated and tested in a Caterpillar 1Y3700 single-cylinder oil test engine (SCOTE). Engine testing confirmed the findings from the CFD simulations and found that the co-optimized injector and piston bowl design yielded over 2-percentage point increase in thermal efficiency at the same equivalence ratio (0.96) and over 6-percentage point increase at the same engine load (10.1 bar indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP)), while satisfying design constraints for peak pressure and maximum pressure rise rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In support of efforts to develop improved models of turbulent spray behavior and combustion in diesel engines, experimental data and analysis must be obtained for guidance and validation. For Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)-based Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling approaches, representative ensemble average experimental results are important. For high-fidelity models such as large eddy simulations (LES)-based CFD, precise individual experimental results are desirable. However, making comparisons between a given experiment and LES is a challenge since local parameters cannot be directly compared. In this work, an optically accessible constant pressure flow rig (CPFR) is utilized to acquire diesel-like fuel injection and reaction behavior simultaneously with three optical diagnostic techniques: rainbow Schlieren deflectometry (RSD), OH* chemiluminescence (OH*), and two-color pyrometry (2CP). The CPFR allows a large number of repeated injection experiments to be performed for statistical analysis and convergence using ensemble-averaging techniques, while maintaining highly repeatable test conditions. Even for stable test conditions, variations in local turbulent fuel-air mixing introduce variability, which manifests as significant differences in OH* and 2CP results. Experimental measurements of characteristic parameters including liquid and vapor jet penetration, liftoff length, soot temperature and concentration, and turbulent flame speed, along with the shot-to-shot variability of each dataset, are presented and discussed. A statistical method is utilized to analyze the extent of this variability, and to identify superlative injections within the dataset for discussion and analysis of shot-to-shot variations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Every Riemannian metric or Finsler metric on a manifold induces a spray via its geodesics. In this paper, we discuss several expressions for the χ -curvature of a spray. We show that the sprays obtained by a projective deformation using the S-curvature always have vanishing χ -curvature. Then we establish the Beltrami Theorem for sprays with χ = 0. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Résumé: La qualité de l'air intérieur représente un enjeu de santé publique majeur. Les actions des pouvoirs publics portent notamment sur la réduction des sources de polluants volatils spécifiques aux environnements intérieurs, dont certains usages domestiques de produits de consommation. Pour contribuer à identifier les produits associés aux risques sanitaires les plus préoccupants, la démarche d'évaluation des risques sanitaires (ERS) a été appliquée à trois types de produits de consommation courante, présélectionnés en fonction de leurs risques individuels attendus : désodorisants combustibles (encens, bougies parfumées), produits ménagers et désodorisants non combustibles (sprays, diffuseurs). Le champ des ERS réalisées incluait les expositions par inhalation, chroniques et aiguës (expositions d'une heure), et les usages de type domestique. Ces ERS se sont basées sur des concentrations mesurées en conditions réelles et sur des scénarios d'exposition déterministes (« moyen » et « pire cas raisonnable ») élaborés à partir de sondages nationaux sur les usages des produits étudiés. Dans le cas particulier des produits ménagers, l'élaboration de séances de ménage complètes, « multiproduits » et « multipièces », s'est appuyée sur une consultation de parties prenantes. Les résultats obtenus suggèrent que, dans le cadre des produits testés et des hypothèses retenues dans ces ERS, (i) les usages les plus courants correspondent à des risques individuels chroniques non préoccupants, quel que soit le type de produit étudié, considéré individuellement ; (ii) les expositions les plus élevées ont besoin d'être réduites pour assurer l'absence de risque préoccupant, notamment en réduisant les émissions des produits les plus émissifs, quel que soit le type de produit étudié ; (iii) les encens et, dans une moindre mesure, les sprays désodorisants sont les produits présentant les risques individuels les plus élevés, parmi les produits étudiés. Les substances d'intérêt prioritaire identifiées sont l'acroléine, le benzène, le formaldéhyde et les particules fines (PM2,5). Les effets sanitaires potentiels incluent divers troubles du système respiratoire et un excès de risque de leucémie. Indoor air quality is a major public health issue. Potential government actions include reducing indoor sources of volatile pollutants, especially household uses of some consumer products of concern. To help identify the products with the greatest health risks, a Health Risk Assessment (HRA) approach was applied to three types of consumer products, selected in advance for their expected individual risks: combustible air fresheners (incense, scented candles), cleaning products, and non-combustible air fresheners (sprays, diffusers). The scope of the HRA covered inhalation exposures (chronic and acute) and household uses. These HRAs were based on concentrations measured in real conditions and on exposure scenarios ("mean" and "reasonable worst-case") developed with national utilization surveys in France. A meeting with stakeholders for cleaning products led to the development of full "multi-product" and "multi-room" cleaning sessions. The results suggest that, based on the products tested and on the assumptions selected in these HRA, (i) the most common uses for each type of product studied correspond to individual chronic risks that may not be of concern, (ii) the highest exposures for each type of product should be reduced to ensure safe use and, as such, emissions should be reduced for the products with the highest emission levels, (iii) incense products and, to a lesser extent, fragrance sprays are the consumer products with the highest individual risks among the products studied. The priority substances identified were acrolein, benzene, formaldehyde, and fine particulate matter (PM2.5). Potential health effects include various respiratory system disorders and an excess risk of leukemia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heavy fuel oil (HFO) is an economical fuel alternative for power generation as its low production cost and high energy density. However, its incomplete combustion induced by the presence of long-chain petroleum molecules in the fuel results in high levels of emissions. Here, we investigate the influence of the swirl flow on the combustion and emissions of a spray HFO swirling flame. To this end, HFO is sprayed into a hot swirling air, using an air-blast nozzle. The flame blowout limits are tested under different swirl flows. An investigation of the in-flame temperature fields, gaseous emissions including CO, CO2, O2, NOx, SOx, UHC (Unburned Hydrocarbon) and solid particles in the form of cenospheres are used to quantify the performance of the HFO combustion. The influence of the HFO swirling flame is tested under different conditions of global equivalence ratio, swirling number, and tangential and axial airflow rates. A comparison of two different flame regimes that fuel-jet dominate flame and air-driven vortex flows are investigated and compared in various swirling flow conditions. The results show that the tangent air is the primary factor for preheating and evaporating the fuel, thus defining the flame operating regimes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]