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3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) is a food processing contaminant in some infant formula products and other foods in the United States. Although rodent studies have demonstrated that 3-MCPD and its palmitic esters have the potential to induce nephrotoxicity, our recent human cell culture studies using the human renal proximal tubule cell line HK-2 have not strongly supported this finding. Considering this disparity, we sought to examine whether changes in transporter gene expression on proximal tubule cells could be modulated by these compounds and allow us to glean mechanistic information on a possible indirect path to proximal tubule injury in vivo . If fundamental processes like water and solute transport could be disrupted by 3-MCPD compounds, then a new avenue of toxicity could be further explored in both infant and adult models. In our current study, we used HK-2 cells as an in vitro cellular model of human proximal tubule cells to investigate the effects of low (10 μM) and high (100 μM) 3-MCPD compound exposures to these cells for 24 hours (h) on the expression of 20 transporter genes that are known to be relevant to proximal tubules. Although we detected consistent upregulation of AQP1 expression at the RNA transcript level following HK-2 treatment with both low and high doses of several ester-bound 3-MCPD compounds, these increases were not associated with statistically significant elevations in their protein expression levels. Moreover, we observed a lack of modulation of other members of the AQP protein family that are known to be expressed by human proximal tubule cells. Overall, our study suggests the possibility that 3-MCPD-related nephrotoxicity could be associated with indirect modes of action relating to aquaporin homeostasis, but additional studies with other human-derived models would be pertinent to further explore these findings and to better understand transporter expression differences under different stages of proximal tubule development., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2021 Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Chloropropanols are chemical contaminants that can be formed during industrial processing of foods, such as lipids used in commercially available infant and toddler formula in the USA. Many researchers have studied the most common chloropropanol contaminant, 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD), as well as its lipid ester derivatives. A plethora of toxicological outcomes have been described in vivo, including effects on the heart, nervous system, reproductive organs, and kidneys. To better understand the concordance of some of these effects to in vitro outcomes, we focused our research on using an in vitro cellular model to investigate whether the proximal tubule cells of the kidney would be vulnerable to the effects of free 3-MCPD and nine of its common esters in commercial formula. Using the established human kidney proximal tubule cell line, HK-2, we performed 24-h treatments using 3-MCPD and nine mono- or di-esters derived from palmitate, oleate, and linoleate. By directly exposing HK-2 cells at treatment doses ranging from 0 to 100 μM, we could evaluate their effects on cell viability, mitochondrial health, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and other endpoints of toxicity. Since chloropropanols reportedly inhibit cellular metabolism through interference with glycolysis, we also tested the extent of this mechanism. Overall, we found mild but statistically significant evidence of cytotoxicity at the highest tested treatment concentrations, which were also associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and transient perturbations in cellular metabolism. Based on these findings, further studies will be required to better understand the effects of these compounds under conditions that are more physiologically relevant to human infant and toddler proximal tubules in order to mimic their exposure to chloropropanol-containing foods.

Classic toxicology studies often utilize in vivo animal models. Newer approaches employing in vitro organ-specific cellular models have been developed in recent years to help accelerate the speed and reduce the cost of traditional toxicology testing. Toward the goal of supporting in vitro cellular model research with a regulatory application in mind, we have developed a 'designer' human kidney cell line called HK2-Vi that can fluorescently measure the cytotoxicity of potential toxins on proximal tubule cell viability in a direct exposure in vitro model. HK2-Vi was designed to be a reagent-less kinetic assay that can yield data on short- or long-term cell viability after toxin exposure. To generate HK2-Vi, we used monocistronic lentiviral transduction methods to genetically engineer a human kidney cell line called HK-2 to stably co-express two transgenes. The first is Perceval HR, which encodes a fluorescent biosensor of both cytosolic ATP and ADP and the second is pHRed, which encodes a biosensor of cytosolic pH. Relative levels of cellular ATP and ADP effectively serve as a reliable and robust indicator of cell viability. Because the fluorescence Perceval HR is pH-dependent, we co-expressed the pHRed genetic biosensor to correct for variations in pH if necessary. Heterogenous populations of transduced renal cells were enriched by flow cytometry before monoclonal cellular populations were isolated by cell culture methods. A single clonal population of co-transduced cells expressing both Perceval HR and pHRed was selected to be HK2-Vi. This established cell line can now serve as a tool for in vitro toxicology testing and the methods described herein serve as a model for developing designer cell lines derived from other organs.

3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) is a food processing contaminant in the U.S. food supply, detected in infant formula. In vivo rodent model studies have identified a variety of possible adverse outcomes from 3-MCPD exposure including renal effects like increased kidney weights, tubular hyperplasia, kidney tubular necrosis, and chronic progressive nephropathy. Given the lack of available in vivo toxicological assessments of 3-MCPD in humans and the limited availability of in vitro human cell studies, the health effects of 3-MCPD remain unclear. We used in vitro human proximal tubule cells represented by the HK-2 cell line to compare short- and long-term consequences to continuous exposure to this compound. After periodic lengths of exposure (0-100 mM) ranging from 1 to 16 days, we evaluated cell viability, mitochondrial integrity, oxidative stress, and a specific biomarker of proximal tubule injury, Kidney Injury Molecule-1 (KIM-1). Overall, we found that free 3-MCPD was generally more toxic at high concentrations or extended durations of exposure, but that its overall ability to induce cell injury was limited in this in vitro system. Further experiments will be needed to conduct a comprehensive safety assessment in infants who may be exposed to 3-MCPD through consumption of infant formula, as human renal physiology changes significantly during development.

Fatty acid esters of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) are chemical contaminants found in a wide range of edible oils that are thermally processed during industrial manufacturing of infant formula and other lipid-containing foods in the United States. Rodent studies have unequivocally demonstrated a plethora of in vivo toxicological effects including reproductive, neurological and renal dysfunction. To determine if similar effects are observed in human organ systems, in vitro studies using human cell lines are conducted to assess concordance of the data collected. One limitation to performing such in vitro research is the extremely high hydrophobicity of 3-MCPD esters; dissolving them into aqueous cell culture media is a tremendous challenge. To address this obstacle, we developed a simple protocol to circumvent the immiscibility of 3-MCPD esters and their corresponding free fatty acids into aqueous cell culture media in order to assess the effect of these esters on epithelial cells of kidney origin in vitro ., (© 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Carboxymethyl starches are added to food products for thickening or tablet binding/filling purposes. Although they lack toxicity, their synthesis creates the chemical byproduct diglycolic acid (DGA), which is difficult to eliminate and whose toxicity is in question. A rare case of an accidental direct exposure to extremely high concentrations of DGA in a person revealed that DGA has the potential to be toxic to several organs, with the kidneys and liver being the most affected organs. Given that DGA is present in our food supply as a chemical byproduct of carboxymethyl starch food additives, we sought to perform in vitro testing of its potential hepatotoxicity to help complement a recent in vivo rat acute dose-response study that also tested for the potential hepatotoxic effects of daily DGA ingestion by oral gavage over a period of 28 days. Using the HepG2/C3A cellular in vitro model, we tested how escalating doses of DGA exposure over 24 h could induce hepatotoxicity. Both in vitro and in vivo testing systems revealed that DGA is indeed a hepatotoxin once a certain exposure threshold is reached. The concordance of these models highlights the utility of in vitro testing to support and help predict in vivo findings., (Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Diglycolic acid (DGA) is present in trace amounts in our food supply and is classified as an indirect food additive linked with the primary GRAS food additive carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC). Carboxymethyl starches are used as a filler/binder excipient in dietary supplement tablets and a thickening ingredient in many other processed foods. We sought to utilize the human proximal tubule HK-2 cell line as an in vitro cellular model system to evaluate its acute nephrotoxicity of DGA. We found that DGA was indeed toxic to HK-2 cells in all in vitro assays in our study, including a highly sensitive Luminex assay that measures levels of an in vitro biomarker of kidney-specific toxicity, Kidney Injury Molecule 1 (KIM-1). Interestingly, in vitro KIM-1 levels also correlated with in vivo KIM-1 levels in urine collected from rats treated with DGA by daily oral gavage. The use of in vitro and in vivo models towards understanding the effectiveness of an established in vitro system to predict in vivo outcomes would be particularly useful in rapidly screening compounds that are suspected to be unsafe to consumers. The merit of the HK-2 cell model in predicting human toxicity and accelerating the process of food toxicant screening would be especially important for regulatory purposes. Overall, our study not only revealed the value of HK-2 in vitro cell model for nephrotoxicity evaluation, but also uncovered some of the mechanistic aspects of the human proximal tubule injury that DGA may cause.