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The field of reconstructive microsurgery is experiencing tremendous growth, as evidenced by recent advances in face and hand transplantation, lower limb salvage after trauma, and breast reconstruction. Common to all of these procedures is the creation of a nutrient vascular supply by microsurgical anastomosis between a single artery and vein. Complications related to occluded arterial inflow and obstructed venous outflow are not uncommon, and can result in irreversible tissue injury, necrosis, and flap loss. At times, these complications are challenging to clinically determine. Since early intervention with return to the operating room to re-establish arterial inflow or venous outflow is key to flap salvage, the accurate diagnosis of early stage complications is essential. To date, there are no biochemical markers or serum assays that can predict these complications. In this study, we utilized a rat model of flap ischemia in order to identify the transcriptional signatures of venous congestion and arterial ischemia. We found that the critical ischemia time for the superficial inferior epigastric fasciocutaneus flap was four hours and therefore performed detailed analyses at this time point. Histolgical analysis confirmed significant differences between arterial and venous ischemia. The transcriptome of ischemic, congested, and control flap tissues was deciphered by performing Affymetrix microarray analysis and verified by qRT-PCR. Principal component analysis revealed that arterial ischemia and venous congestion were characterized by distinct transcriptomes. Arterial ischemia and venous congestion was characterized by 408 and 1536>2-fold differentially expressed genes, respectively. qRT-PCR was used to identify five candidate genes Prol1, Muc1, Fcnb, Il1b, and Vcsa1 to serve as biomarkers for flap failure in both arterial ischemia and venous congestion. Our data suggests that Prol1 and Vcsa1 may be specific indicators of venous congestion and allow clinicians to both diagnose and successfully treat microvascular complications before irreversible tissue damage and flap loss occurs.

Cleft palate is a developmental defect resulting from the failure of embryonic palatal shelves to fuse with each other at a critical time. Immediately before and during palatal fusion (E13-E15 in mice), transforming growth factor β3 (TGFβ3) is expressed in the palatal shelf medial edge epithelium (MEE) and plays a pivotal role in palatal fusion. Using Tgfβ3(-/-) mice, which display complete penetrance of the cleft palate phenotype, we tested the hypothesis that intra-amniotic gene transfer could be used to prevent cleft palate formation by restoring palatal midline epithelial function. An adenoviral vector encoding Tgfβ3 was microinjected into the amniotic sacs of mouse embryos at successive developmental stages. Transduced Tgfβ3(-/-) fetuses showed efficient recovery of palatal fusion with mesenchymal confluence following injection at E12.5 (100%), E13.5 (100%), E14.5 (82%), and E15.5 (75%). Viral vectors injected into the amniotic sac transduced the most superficial and transient peridermal cell layer but not underlying basal epithelial cells. TGFβ3 transduction of the peridermdal cell layer was sufficient to induce adhesion, fusion, and disappearance of the palatal shelf MEE in a cell nonautonomous manner. We propose that intra-amniotic gene transfer approaches have therapeutic potential to prevent cleft palate in utero, especially those resulting from palatal midline epithelial dysfunction.

Mutations in fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2), a transmembrane receptor expressed in suture mesenchyme, osteogenic fronts, and dura, have been implicated in the etiopathogenesis of craniosynostosis syndromes. The C278F- and P253R-FGFR2 mutations result in Crouzon and Apert syndromes, respectively. The dura mater plays a critical role in the formation and maintenance of cranial sutures. However, its role in syndromic craniosynostosis remains unclear. This study examines the influence of FGFR2 mutations in dural cells on osteoblast proliferation and differentiation. Primary cultures of dural cells and osteoblasts were established, and adenoviral-FGFR2 constructs were prepared by subcloning mutant (C278F and P253R) FGFR2 constructs into adenovirus. Dural cells were infected with adenovirus, and dural protein expression was confirmed by immunostaining. Infected dural cells were cocultured with osteoblasts using a transwell system for 7 days. Dural cells infected with null adenovirus served as the negative control. In separate cultures, osteoblasts were directly infected with the adenoviral-FGFR2 constructs. Osteoblast proliferation was analyzed by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, and differentiation was analyzed by alkaline phosphatase assay, histochemical staining, and gene expression studies. Osteoblasts directly infected with the Crouzon (C278F-FGFR2) mutation demonstrated an increase in cell proliferation (P < 0.05). Osteoblasts directly infected with the Apert (P253R-FGFR2) mutation demonstrated an increase in alkaline phosphatase activity. In coculture experiments, osteoblasts cocultured with Crouzon-transformed dural cells demonstrated increased cell proliferation (P < 0.05), whereas osteoblasts cocultured with Apert-transformed dural cells showed an increase in alkaline phosphatase activity (P < 0.05). In addition, osteogenic gene expression (alkaline phosphatase, osteopontin, and runx2) were up-regulated in osteoblasts cocultured with Apert-expressing dural cells. These experiments suggest that FGFR2 mutations in dural cells alter normal dural signaling. Apert mutations promote osteodifferentiation, whereas Crouzon mutations result in enhanced cell proliferation. These mutations may induce craniosynostosis in part through the influence of mutation-induced constitutive signaling in the dura, with subsequent enhancement of dural-mediated osteogenesis.