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It is now widely recognized that one of the characteristic features of the phylum Echinodermata is the presence of collagenous tissues that can undergo rapid, nervously mediated changes in mechanical properties (1,2). Whilst examples of such mutable collagenous tissues have been demonstrated in the five major echinoderm classes (3,4), research over the past 30 years has focused on a certain few of them that are easily accessible and amenable to experimental investigation. The capsular ligament ("catch apparatus"--CA) of the echinoid spine-test joint is one of these well-studied collagenous structures. Because the CA can undergo reversible changes in passive stifness, it was believed to be a catch muscle by von Uexkull (5). Subsequently it was shown to consist predominantly of collagenous connective tissue with only a scattering of small muscle fibers. Analysis of its mechanical properties and physiological responses led most workers to the conclusion that the CA is a posture-locking device whose functioning depends almost entirely on the variable tensility of its extracellular connective tissue (6-11). However, de1 Castillo et al. (12) have presented a model in which its catch properties are attributed only to the contractile cells and in which connective tissue mutability plays no role. The aims of this contribution are to evaluate the new model, to show that it cannot explain the behavior of the CA, and to demonstrate that the extracellular matrix must be the primary source of the catch properties of the CA.

Author(s): Nardo, Lorenzo; Lane, Nancy E; Parimi, Neeta; Cawthon, Peggy M; Fan, Bo; Shepherd, John; Cauley, Jane; Zucker-Levin, Audrey; Murphy, Rachel A; Katzman, Wendy B | Abstract: Study designA descriptive study of the association between diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) and kyphosis.ObjectiveTo investigate the association of DISH with Cobb angle of kyphosis in a large cohort of older subjects from the Health Aging and Body Composition Study.Summary of background dataDISH and thoracic kyphosis are well-defined radiographical findings in spines of older individuals. Characteristics of DISH (ossifications between vertebral segments) reflect changes of spine anatomy and physiology that may be associated with Cobb angle of kyphosis.MethodsUsing data from 1172 subjects aged 70 to 79 years, we measured DISH and Cobb angle of kyphosis from computed tomographic lateral scout scans. Characteristics of participants with and without DISH were assessed using the χ² and t tests. Association between DISH and Cobb angle was analyzed using linear regression. Cobb angle and DISH relationship was assessed at different spine levels (thoracic and lumbar).ResultsDISH was identified on computed tomographic scout scan in 152 subjects with 101 cases in only the thoracic spine and 51 in both thoracic and lumbar spine segments. The mean Cobb angle of kyphosis in the analytic sample was 31.3° (standard deviation = 11.2). The presence of DISH was associated with a greater Cobb angle of 9.1° and 95% confidence interval (95% CI) (5.6-12.6) among African Americans and a Cobb angle of 2.9° and 95% CI (0.5-5.2) among Caucasians compared with those with no DISH. DISH in the thoracic spine alone was associated with a greater Cobb angle of 10.6° and 95% CI (6.5-14.7) in African Americans and a Cobb angle of 3.8° and 95% CI (1.0-6.5) in Caucasians compared with those with no DISH.ConclusionDISH is associated with greater Cobb angle of kyphosis, especially when present in the thoracic spine alone. The association of DISH with Cobb angle is stronger within the African American population.

Collagen was extracted by pepsin-digestion of the spine ligaments of the sea-urchin Eucidaris tribuloides . The collagen resembled vertebrate type I collagen in its α-chain composition and solubility characteristics. Its amino acid composition had both differences and similarities when compared with vertebrate type I and other echinoderm collagens. The collagen formed SLS-crystallites and native-banded fibrils under appropriate conditions.

Connective tissues, such as ligaments and tendons, are comprised of varying amounts of collagen, elastin, and ground substance. It is conceivable to develop a microstructural material model based on the volume fraction and orientation of each constituent, and their interactions.Copyright © 2008 by ASME

The similar proximal and distal attachments to the stereom of primary spine ligament in the echinoid Eucidaris tribuloides are described, from thin sections and SEM studies on frozen and fractured spine articulations and ligaments from decalcified material. The orthogonal structure of the general stereom is modified on the attachment zones where bundles of collagen cylinders enter approximately hexagonally arranged channels. Straps of collagen extend in parallel series between adjacent bundles via regularly placed ports and collagen loops rather than non-striated 'tendons' pass over skeletal trabeculae. The regular pattern of collagen straps is most evident on the proximal and distal attachment zones. Mechanical features of the non-adhesive mode of attachment are considered, together with similarities and differences between insertion of muscle cells and mutable collagenous tissue (ligament) in echinoderms.

The mutable collagenous tissue (MCT) of echinoderms can undergo extreme changes in passive mechanical properties within a timescale of less than 1 s to a few minutes, involving a mechanism that is under direct neural control and coordinated with the activities of muscles. MCT occurs at a variety of anatomical locations in all echinoderm classes, is involved in every investigated echinoderm autotomy mechanism, and provides a mechanism for the energy-sparing maintenance of posture. It is therefore crucially important for the biology of extant echinoderms. This chapter summarises current knowledge of the physiology and organisation of MCT, with particular attention being given to its molecular organisation and the molecular mechanism of mutability. The biotechnological potential of MCT is discussed. It is argued that MCT could be a source of, or inspiration for, (1) new pharmacological agents and strategies designed to manipulate therapeutically connective tissue mechanical properties and (2) new composite materials with biomedical applications.

INTRODUCTION Spinal ligaments are important for stabilization and motion during normal spine function. Because of the morbidity associated with spine ligament injury, it is important to ascertain the material properties of spinal ligaments. The Center for Applied Biomechanics has performed extensive mechanical testing on spinal soft tissues [1-3]. The objective of this study is to investigate spinal leveldependency on spine ligament viscoelasticity.