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Resumen Esta investigación presenta índices de encadenamientos productivos y elasticidades empleo-producto para la economía costarricense con información de la matriz de insumo producto (MIP) de 2012. Para el cálculo de los índices se utilizó la metodología de Chenery y Watanabe (1958), mientras que las elasticidades se estimaron con base en Valadkhani (2003). Se encontró que las actividades con mayores encadenamientos son: cría de ganado, servicios de apoyo a la agricultura, servicios de carga y almacenamiento, construcción de edificios, la actividad de sociedades de cartera y telecomunicaciones; en tanto las que presentan mayor elasticidad son: comercio, la enseñanza y la construcción de edificios. Al separar por régimen fiscal, se observa que las empresas de zonas francas tienden a ser más inelásticas que las empresas del régimen definitivo, en cuanto a su aporte a la ocupación total ante aumentos en la demanda. Abstract This paper presents indexes of production chains and employment-output elasticities for the Costa Rican economy with data from the Input Output Table of 2012. The estimation of the indexes follows the methodology by Chenery and Watanabe (1958), while elasticity coefficients were calculated following Valadkhani (2003). As a result, the industries with higher linkages are livestock farming, agricultural support services, storage services, construction, financial activities and telecommunications. Meanwhile, the industries with highest employment output elasticities are retail trade, education, and construction. Regarding the fiscal regime, it is noted that companies in free trade zones tend to be more inelastic in terms of their contribution to total employment when their demand increases. Resumo Esta pesquisa apresenta índices de cadeias produtivas e elasticidades produto-emprego para a economia costarriquenha com informações da matriz insumo-produto (MIP) de 2012. Para o cálculo dos índices, foi utilizada a metodologia de Chenery e Watanabe (1958), enquanto as elasticidades foram estimadas com base em Valadkhani (2003). Constatou-se que as atividades com maiores vínculos são: pecuária, serviços de apoio à agricultura, serviços de carga e armazenagem, construção de edifícios, atividade de holding e telecomunicações, sendo que as que apresentam maior elasticidade são: comércio, educação e construção de edifícios. Na separação por regime tributário, observa-se que as empresas em zonas francas tendem a ser mais inelásticas do que as empresas em regime definitivo, em termos de contribuição para a ocupação total face ao aumento da procura.

The aim of this work was to characterize the air mycobiota of two production plants, one of artisanal chocolate and another of products for special regimes in a food factory in Cuba at different times of the year. The air was sampled during 1 year every 25 days distributed in rainy season and non-rainy. The method proposed by Omeliansky was applied and four bacteriostats were used: chloramphenicol, lactic acid, sodium chloride, and iodized common salt with malt agar extract in Petri dishes exposed for 1 h. The temperature and relative humidity were monitored to determine their influence on the fungal concentration, which was higher in the rainy season. Among the main fungi isolated from the air mycobiota of these production plants, Neurospora crassa was the predominant species along with the genera Aspergillus and Trichoderma. In addition, other less frequent genera as Cladosporium and Fusarium were detected. However, Penicillium and Mucor were predominant and non-frequent in the artisanal chocolate area. The adequate constructive design of the production plants and the correct location of dehumidifiers were identified as important elements to decrease the fungal contamination. Likewise, this study suggests the use of iodized salt as an economic alternative in air microbiological sampling of indoor environments., Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Tecnología de Pinturas

The theme of political sanctions is commonly discussed in juridical sciences only within the focus of proportionality, in the sense of precluding more forceful collections by the State. That approach revolves around the application of three classical precedents of the Brazilian Supreme Court regarding the subject (70, 323 and 547). This work proposes to go beyond that and even verify the situations in which these precedents might be set aside so that other values are not left unprotected. With this objective, this thesis initiates with the analyses of an approximated concept of fiscal justice and of the model of State that might accomplish it, the Fiscal State; this work then evolves to the study of the fundamental duty of paying taxes and, still in the first chapter, the hermeneutical method that is best suited to confront this problem. Afterward, in the matter of proportionality itself, which is already established in the scientific community as a way to measure whether a form of collection is lawful or not, this study seeks a new perspective of analysis of the subject, proving when a good is protected insufficiently. Subsequently, using the concept of political sanctions formulated by the Brazilian Supreme Court, this work demonstrates the possibility of indirect means of charging and even, as a last measure, the closing of the establishment, which incites the overcoming of the classic concept of political sanctions, at least in the specified exceptional cases. Considering the history of the theme of political sanctions and aware of the difficulties of establishing hermeneutical parameters sufficiently safe, the third chapter proceeds to study the special regimes of taxation, inspection and collection; the reach of the norm contained in the article 146-A of the Constitution and its regulation as the best suited juridical tool to establish distinctions in the normative scope of political sanctions (illicit actions perpetrated by the State) and the authorization to cancel the license to operate of companies or even to determine their closure. For this purpose, it is suggested that the legal diploma should treat the taxpayers in situation of non-payment and that belong to specific economic sectors in a proportional and gradual way, so that the most severe sanctions may only reach the debtors understood as contumacious. O tema das sanções políticas é comumente discutido nas ciências jurídicas apenas sob o enfoque da proporcionalidade, no sentido da vedação de cobranças mais contundentes por parte do Estado. Sua abordagem gira em torno da aplicação das três súmulas clássicas do STF sobre o tema (70, 323 e 547). Esse trabalho propõe ir além disso e até mesmo verificar as situações em que essa jurisprudência possa ser afastada para que outros valores não fiquem desprotegidos. Para isso inicia com a análise de um conceito aproximado de justiça fiscal e de modelo de Estado que o efetive, o Estado Fiscal. Evolui-se para o estudo do dever fundamental de pagar tributos e, ainda no primeiro capítulo, o método hermenêutico mais adequado ao enfrentamento dessa problemática. Em seguida, dentro da própria proporcionalidade, já consagrada na comunidade cientifica como a medida de licitude ou não da forma de cobrança, busca-se um novo prisma de análise da matéria, comprovando quando um bem é protegido insuficientemente. Após isso e utilizando o conceito de sanções políticas cunhado pelo STF, demonstra que são possíveis meios indiretos de cobrança e em última medida até mesmo o fechamento de estabelecimento, o que provoca uma superação do conceito clássico de sanções políticas pelos menos em casos excepcionais que especifica. Pelo histórico do tema das sanções políticas e ciente das dificuldades no estabelecimentos de parâmetros hermenêutico suficientemente seguros, o capítulo terceiro passa a estudar os regimes especiais de tributação, fiscalização e cobrança, o alcance da norma contida no art. 146-A da Constituição e a sua regulamentação como o instrumento jurídico mais adequado para se estabelecerem distinções no âmbito normativo das sanções políticas (atos ilícios por parte do Estado), autorização para o cancelamento de registro de funcionamento de empresas e até mesmo seu fechamento. Para isso sugere-se ao diploma legal um tratamento proporcional e gradativo aos contribuintes em situação de inadimplência e pertencentes a determinados setores econômicos de modo a que as sanções mais rígidas somente alcancem os devedores tidos como contumazes. São Cristóvão, SE

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In the last decade Morocco undertook substantial, if gradual, trade liberalization by reducing tariffs, reforming trade regulations and signing free and preferential trade agreements with several regions and countries, including the United States, Turkey, the European Union and Arab countries. This paper analyzes the impact of input tariff reduction on Moroccan exporting firms through the channel of intermediate goods. Gaining access to more varied and cheaper inputs can make exporting firms more competitive, and as a result they export more. To evaluate how this policy may impact firms export performance, the paper analyzes the impact of input tariff reduction on different margins of trade with emphasis on export markets and product diversification. The identification of the effect of input tariffs on exports relies on a difference-in-difference estimator using heterogeneous access to import tariff exemption as a measure of different levels of exposure to input tariff reduction at the firm level. Overall, the analysis finds that firms that are relatively more exposed to input tariff perform better in those sectors with the largest input tariff reduction, with better access to markets, higher probability to survive when exporting new products in those sectors and higher export value growth.

This report analyzes export competitiveness in the Dominican Republic drawing from the Trade Competitiveness Diagnostic methodology (Farole and Reis, 2012). Dominican exports fare well in terms of performance, sophistication, and survival in Special Economic Zones. Three main challenges are identified: 1) quality issues and rejection of agro exports in the US border; 2) the role of Special Economic Zones in the new decade and the lack of backward linkages; and 3) excessive concentration in terms of markets that is not addressed by a fragmented institutional setup.

The main objective of this work is to assess the incompatibility or affinity, from a normative analysis, of regulating criteria concerning abusive clauses and their insertion in an adhesion contract, whose origin is from a consumer relationship.It is a predominantly theoretical research that aims to study, together with the current Consumer Statute, the enforced provisions regarding abusive clauses that have an impact on the protection provided by the Statute, directly or indirectly, regulating the consuming conditions for some sectors of the economy, more precisely the financial sector, the public utilities sector and the telecommunications sector, thus showing possible contradictions between these provi­sions and what was established on Law 1480 of 2011. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo principal evaluar desde un análisis normativo la afini­dad o incompatibilidad de los criterios que regulan lo concerniente a las cláusulas abusivas y su inserción en un contrato de adhesión, cuyo origen se tenga en una relación de consumo.Se trata de una investigación predominantemente teórica, que se propone estudiar, a la par con lo dispuesto en el actual Estatuto del Consumidor, las disposiciones que sobre el tema de cláusulas abusivas se encuentran vigentes y que directa o indirectamente tienen incidencia sobre el régimen de protección establecido por este, al regular las condiciones de consumo para algunos sectores de la economía, puntualmente el sector financiero, el sector de servicios públicos domiciliarios y el sector de las telecomunicaciones; evidenciando así las posibles con­tradicciones entre estás y lo establecido de manera general en la Ley 1480 de 2011. O principal objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar a incompatibilidade ou de afinidade, a partir de uma análise normativa, de regular os critérios relativos às cláusulas abusivas e sua inserção em um contrato de adesão, cuja origem é a partir de uma relação de consumo.É uma pesquisa predominantemente teórica que tem como objetivo estudar, em conjunto com o Estatuto do Consumidor vigente, as disposições aplicadas em relação a cláusulas abusivas que têm um impacto sobre a proteção fornecida pelo Estatuto, direta ou indiretamente, que regulamenta as condições de consumo para alguns setores da economia, mais precisamente o sector financeiro, o setor de serviços públicos e do setor de telecomunicações, mostrando, assim, possíveis contradições entre essas disposições e que foi estabelecido em Lei 1480 de 2011.

The Central America region is a small market. The region contains around 43 million inhabitants (0.6 percent of total world population) who generate around 0.25 percent of the world's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). While the region has successfully embarked on a regional integration agenda and has strong commercial links with the US, extra-regional trade-mainly with large fast-growing emerging economies-remains a challenge. Export performance is analyzed along three dimensions that, together, give a fairly comprehensive picture of competitiveness: 1) the composition, orientation and growth of the export basket; 2) the degree of export diversification across products and markets; and 3) the level of sophistication and quality of their main exports. This analysis allows exports dynamics at the different margins of trade (intensive, extensive, and quality) to be evaluated and individual countries' to be benchmarked with peers in the Central American region. The results of this report allow policy makers to identify key areas to explore in the overall discussion of export competitiveness in the Central American region. This paper relates to the literature on challenges and opportunities that trade liberalization can bring to the Central American region. Much of the recent literature focuses on the role of the free trade agreement negotiated by Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, with the US.

Data protection differs from other constraints on open science in that its rules and regulations have the clearly-defined aim of protecting the fundamental rights and freedoms of data subjects. The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), the new binding EU regulation on data protection, sets novel standards for the protection of those rights and freedoms. With its implementation in individual member states still ongoing, its exact interpretation and its impact on open science remain unknown. It is, however, already clear that the EOSC needs to be in compliance with the GDPR, making it crucial to raise awareness among EOSC stakeholders on issues arising from the GDPR and recommendations on how to deal with these issues as well as their potential divergent member state implementations, both for current and for future stages of work in this subtask. For this reason, most of the recommendations provided in this paper, when considered on a continuum of legal and policy recommendations, fall closer to the legal end. The main difficulty facing this subtask arises from the differing levels of harmonisation due to member states’ use of the opening clauses in the GDPR. Our primary recommendation, then, is that the EOSC raise awareness regarding possible difficulties stemming from said use of opening clauses. This is relevant for both research projects between member states and for institutions individually. Art. 89 GDPR remains the most crucial factor in identifying possible differences among member states with regard to the processing of personal data for scientific research purposes. It allows member states to derogate from certain rights granted under the Regulation (Art. 15, 16, 18, 21 GDPR) if the processing is for scientific purposes. Furthermore Art. 9 II (j) GDPR in conjunction with Art. 89 GDPR constitutes a legal ground for processing special categories of personal data. Given the scope of action granted to member states by Art. 89 GDPR, scientific data processing contexts and their regulation might be the area of GDPR implementation where harmonisation is most likely to be compromised.

Data protection differs from other constraints on open science in that its rules and regulations have the clearly-defined aim of protecting the fundamental rights and freedoms of data subjects. The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), the new binding EU regulation on data protection, sets novel standards for the protection of those rights and freedoms. With its implementation in individual member states still ongoing, its exact interpretation and its impact on open science remain unknown. It is, however, already clear that the EOSC needs to be in compliance with the GDPR, making it crucial to raise awareness among EOSC stakeholders on issues arising from the GDPR and recommendations on how to deal with these issues as well as their potential divergent member state implementations, both for current and for future stages of work in this subtask. For this reason, most of the recommendations provided in this paper, when considered on a continuum of legal and policy recommendations, fall closer to the legal end. The main difficulty facing this subtask arises from the differing levels of harmonisation due to member states’ use of the opening clauses in the GDPR. Our primary recommendation, then, is that the EOSC raise awareness regarding possible difficulties stemming from said use of opening clauses. This is relevant for both research projects between member states and for institutions individually. Art. 89 GDPR remains the most crucial factor in identifying possible differences among member states with regard to the processing of personal data for scientific research purposes. It allows member states to derogate from certain rights granted under the Regulation (Art. 15, 16, 18, 21 GDPR) if the processing is for scientific purposes. Furthermore Art. 9 II (j) GDPR in conjunction with Art. 89 GDPR constitutes a legal ground for processing special categories of personal data. Given the scope of action granted to member states by Art. 89 GDPR, scientific data processing contexts and their regulation might be the area of GDPR implementation where harmonisation is most likely to be compromised.&nbsp