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We study cross-country differences in rural and urban educational attainment by using a data set comprising 56 countries. We focus on the determinants of rural-urban educational inequality, which is measured by the ratio of rural to urban average years of schooling within each country. We find that riskier human capital investment, less credit availability, a colonial heritage, a legal system of French origin and landlockedness of nations are all associated with relatively lower rural educational levels and greater rural urban educational inequality. Conversely, larger formal labor markets, better infrastructure and a legal system of British origin are associated with relatively higher rural educational levels and lower rural-urban educational inequality. We also identify an interaction effect between economic development level and some of these factors. In particular, we find that as development level increases, the negative (positive) relationship between French (British) legal systems and rural-urban educational inequality is reversed and becomes positive (negative). JEL classification: I20; O18; R12 Keywords: Human capital; Economic geography; Education: Rural and urban educational inequality

Objectives. Urban/rural residence is a critical health determinant and one researchers have historically found to distinguish health experiences. In this study, we investigated variations in older adult mortality across urban and rural areas of China and assessed mechanisms driving an urban advantage through a series of socioeconomic and health service covariates measured at individual and community levels. Methods. We employed 15 years of mortality data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey. We calculated average annual age-specific death rates and used combinations of covariates to examine Cox proportional hazards models. We employed the 2000 Chinese Census and the 2002 Demographic Yearbook descriptively to assess reliability and provide an alternative source for mortality variation. Results. Hazard ratios and standardized death rates showed rural mortality to be about 30% higher than urban mortality. Cadre status, amenities within the community, and average wage within the community are important determinants of mortality, and adjusting for these covariates reduced the urban advantage. Discussion. There is great differentiation in economic and social life between urban and rural China, and this appears to be negatively influencing survival chances of older adults in rural areas. The policy implications are fairly clear: Investment in rural China is needed to reduce health inequalities.

The Local INtegration Economic (LINE) model and its tourism submodel were used in analyzing the implications of tourism on regional economics of Danish urban and rural areas. It was found that tourism multipliers are greater in urban regions and that increase in shopping leakage reduces the tourism multiplier. The distinction between derived and direct impacts, and that of the relative and absolute effects of tourism on regional economics are examined.

The implications of role models on enteprenurial activities in rural districts with a good history of entrepreneurhsip were compared with those in the regions that do not exhibit the same level of business history. It was found that the existence of role models results in increased entrepreneurship in an area such as the rural Catalonia. The importance of entrepreneurial support policy-making and of the entrepreneur's self-confidence is explained.

The survey results on cooking fuel consumption in rural and urban areas of India for 1983-2000 are examined.

The sources of competition between urban and regional economies and the advantages and disadvantages of this competition for economic development are examined.

The complexity of competitiveness between regions and cities is examined.

Pei-Shan Liao (**) ABSTRACT This paper uses the interactional community approach to examine the effects of community attachment and quality of life on migration intention in rural Pennsylvania and Taiwanese [...]

Fruits and vegetables cost just as much in rural grocery stores as they do in urban grocery stores, according to a study published in the August issue of Preventing Chronic [...]