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The effects of pivot location ( x p / c ) and spacing ratio ( λ = d s / c ) on enhancing the lift generated by rigid biplane NACA 0012 airfoils at R e = 1.35 × 10 5 are studied through the numerical method. SST k − ω turbulence model is adopted to solve URANS equations with overset grids. Results reveal that C L hysteresis exist phase lag under five fixed pivot locations x p / c = 0 , 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1 when biplane airfoils tilt just like pitching stroke. C M curves drop regularly as the pivot point moves towards the spacing direction. However, λ decreasing plays a important role in aerodynamics: C L , lower curve family significantly collapse and C L , upper hysteresis rise overall owing to intensified low-pressure distribution in the gap. Additionally, these performances can be explained from the view of vorticity evolution, particularly, high angles of attack around the stall induce violent turbulence structures. With rearward movement of the pivot point, resemble vortex details appear in the further upstream, indicating aerodynamic characteristics have high similarity under different x p / c regardless of λ. And thus a concept of effective angle of attack for biplane airfoils is proposed where a new factor λ must be introduced. Data assimilation results and vorticity contours are exhibited to prove the feasibility of α eff . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This paper aims to apply the spacing effect of capacitive imaging (CI) sensors to inspect and differentiate external flaws of the protective module, internal flaws of the protective module and external flaws of the metallic module in oil and gas pipelines simultaneously. Through experimental verification, a method for differentiating three distinct kinds of flaws derived from the spacing effect of CI sensors has been demonstrated. Design/methodology/approach: A 3Dimensions (3D) model for simulating the inspection of these flaws was established by using COMSOL. A novel CI sensor with adjustable working electrode spacing was designed, and a modular CI system was developed to substantiate the theoretical findings with experimental evidence. A method for differentiating three distinct kinds of flaws derived from the spacing effect of CI sensors was established. Findings: The results indicate that the method can successfully discriminate external flaws of the protective module, internal flaws of the protective module and external flaws of the metallic module using CI sensors. Originality/value: The method for differentiating three distinct kinds of flaws derived from the spacing effect of CI sensors is vital for keeping the transportation safety of oil and gas pipelines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated whether learning and retaining vocabulary in a second language (L2) can be improved by leveraging a combination of memory enhancement techniques. Specifically, we tested whether combining retrieval practice, spacing, and related manipulations in a 'multidomain' pedagogical approach enhances vocabulary acquisition as compared to a typical learning approach. In a classroom-laboratory design, 48 Turkish university students studying L2 English were trained on 64 English words over 17 days. They were assigned to either a 'typical' study regimen of (re)studying the words on the first day (initial study) and last day (cramming) of training, or an 'optimized' regimen of retrieval practice (retrieving the words), moreover with feedback, spaced throughout the period, moreover with expanding gaps. The target words were tested before training (pre-test) and one and 11 days afterwards (post-tests). Mixed-effects modeling revealed a training-group by test-session interaction, due to greater improvements from optimized training (a striking 18 percentage-point accuracy increase from pre-test to both post-tests) than typical training (an 8 percentage-point increase). Further analyses showed that the optimized training advantages were mainly driven by high (rather than low) frequency words. Overall, the results suggest that a multidomain approach of combining different memory enhancement techniques can lead to substantial gains in both the learning and retention of L2 words, as compared to a typical study pattern. The findings have implications for L2 learning and pedagogy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is critical to promote solid and long-lasting learning techniques in children and adolescents worldwide, including the most underprivileged ones, to improve various aspects of life. Consequentially, research should identify learning techniques that are beneficial for school-age children and that could be easy and inexpensive to apply in educational settings. We systematically reviewed 75 experimental papers that examined the effects on children’s episodic memory of the most effective learning principles identified in adults’ research: distribution of study time (i.e., spacing study sessions is better than massing as shown in the spacing effect), retrieval practice (i.e., retesting at study is better than restudying as in the testing effect), and encoding enrichment (i.e., creating multiple pathways for retrieval is better than relying on fewer pathways, as found in levels-of-processing effect, generation effect, production effect, self-reference effect, and survival effect). We found that these techniques had a beneficial effect on children and adolescents, regardless of their ages. Additionally, we checked whether the materials used in the experiments were educationally relevant. Few experiments have used these materials, except for the testing effect. Researchers interested in the area should undertake projects that help to unveil to what extent these learning techniques could be useful with educationally relevant materials. A starting point could be to use materials more ecological in lab settings and then move to schools to test curricula content. We conclude that the reviewed learning techniques are low-cost and effective and can be a powerful tool to improve memory in children and adolescents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionA major challenge is retention of complex clinical skills. Spacing training and testing have been demonstrated to increase knowledge and skill retention but the combination has not been previously investigated in complex clinical skills. The aim of our study was to compare the effectiveness of combined spacing and testing for Basic Life Support (BLS) and Advance Life Support (ALS) simulation training in one group (intervention group), with combined spacing and testing, and another group (control) that received simulation training in a single-session simulation training without testing.A quasi-experimental study.Thirteen nursing students were in the intervention group and 18 in the control group. After three months, there was no significant reduction in retention of BLS knowledge (p > 0.05) or BLS skills (p < 0.05) in the intervention group, but there was a significant reduction in both (p < 0.05) in the control group. We found no significant reduction in retention of ALS knowledge in the control group (p > 0.05), but there was a significant reduction in the intervention group (p < 0.05). There was no significant decay of ALS skills in both groups (p < 0.05).This is the first study to demonstrate that combined spacing and testing could be highly effective for complex skills simulation training to increase retention after three months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some neural representations gradually change across multiple timescales. Here we argue that modeling this "drift" could help explain the spacing effect (the long-term benefit of distributed learning), whereby differences between stored and current temporal context activity patterns produce greater error-driven learning. We trained a neurobiologically realistic model of the entorhinal cortex and hippocampus to learn paired associates alongside temporal context vectors that drifted between learning episodes and/or before final retention intervals. In line with spacing effects, greater drift led to better model recall after longer retention intervals. Dissecting model mechanisms revealed that greater drift increased error-driven learning, strengthened weights in slower drifting temporal context neurons (temporal abstraction), and improved direct cue–target associations (decontextualization). Intriguingly, these results suggest that decontextualization—generally ascribed only to the neocortex—can occur within the hippocampus itself. Altogether, our findings provide a mechanistic formalization for established learning concepts such as spacing effects and errors during learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present experiments examined whether the temporal distribution of procedural category learning experiences would impact learning outcomes. Participants completed the remote category learning experiments on a smartphone in one of two learning conditions: massed or distributed. Consistent with expectations, distributed learners in both experiments reached higher accuracy levels than massed learners. In Experiment 1 the effect disappeared after accounting for reaction time differences, suggesting that it was driven by attentional mechanisms. In Experiment 2, the spacing advantage was only present for previously studied items during a post-learning test, suggesting a role of consolidation. In both experiments, it seems likely that temporal spacing helped participants discover the optimal information-integration categorization strategy. These results suggest that adult category learning is facilitated by temporal spacing. Future work may further explore the effects of temporal and contextual distinctiveness of learning experiences on category learning outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aural foreign vocabulary is vital for listening skills proficiency, which empowers individuals to engage with foreign languages and cultures effectively. However, many learners struggle with aural foreign vocabulary learning. Thus, we investigate effective methods for the acquisition and recognition of aural foreign vocabulary, focusing on the response type (pictures or translations) and the spacing schedule. Our findings suggest that providing pictures alone as the multiple-choice response options during learning is more effective for the acquisition of aural vocabulary than relying solely on the native translations or a combination of both. During the posttest, the results indicated that learning with picture response alone was superior with no indication of a significant interaction between the practice condition and the spacing schedule. The spacing schedule of the multiple-choice practice significantly impacts the recognition of aural vocabulary. The longer spacing yielded higher recognition rates at the posttest. General Audience Summary: When learning a foreign language, a key goal is communicating effectively with native speakers, which requires learners to accumulate enough phonetic and auditory knowledge of foreign vocabulary. Nation (2001) argued that aural recognition of a target vocabulary is one important aspect of knowing a word. Aural recognition of a word requires learners to store phonological representations of it and know what the word sounds like (Milton et al., 2010). Regrettably, the auditory dimension of foreign vocabulary is often overlooked in conventional classroom settings. Learners often turn to alternative tools (Lin & Lin, 2019) to improve their aural vocabulary knowledge, in which extensive instructional materials like video clips, pictures, printed native translations, and puzzle games are provided. The continuing popularity of such tools suggests that efforts are needed to better understand the effectiveness of how these instructional materials are presented to the learners. This study focused on two common multiple-choice recognition response types: pictures and printed native translations. We aimed to explore which response type was more effective in promoting aural foreign vocabulary acquisition and recognition. It is widely acknowledged that repetition is indispensable in vocabulary memory. However, the effectiveness of repetition schedules varies, with distributed retrieval repetitions showing better long-term retention than massed passive review practice (e.g., Cepeda et al., 2006). However, previous research on distributed retrieval has primarily focused on visual materials, leaving a gap in its application to aural foreign vocabulary learning. The present study sought to address this gap by examining the spacing effect within the auditory modality. Our findings suggest that the presentation of pictures alone facilitates the acquisition and recognition of aural foreign vocabulary. To achieve better long-term recognition, it is advisable to implement a longer spacing schedule during the retrieval practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We assessed the effects of removing some constraints that characterise traditional experiments on the effects of spaced, rather than massed, study opportunities. In five experiments-using lists of to-be-remembered words-we examined the effects of how total study time was distributed across multiple repetitions of a given to-be-remembered word. Overall, within a given list, recall profited from study time being distributed (e.g., four 1-s presentations or two 2-s presentations vs one 4-s presentation). Among the implications of these findings is that if students choose to engage in massed studying (by virtue of constraints on their study time or a failure to appreciate the benefits of spaced study sessions), then studying the information twice but for half the time may produce memory benefits in a single study session.

The morphology of regular and uniform arrays of black silicon structures was evaluated for bactericidal efficacy against gram-positive, non-motile Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis). In this study, uniform and regular arrays of black silicon structures were fabricated using nanosphere lithography and deep reactive ion etching. The effects of nanomorphology on bacterial killing were systematically evaluated using silicon nanostructures with pitches ranging from 300 to 1400 nm pitch on spherical cocci approximately 500 to 1000 nm in diameter. Our results show that nanostructure morphology factors such as height and roughness do not directly determine bactericidal efficacy. Instead, the spacing between nanostructures plays a crucial role in determining how bacteria are stretched and lysed. Nanostructures with smaller pitches are more effective at killing bacteria, and an 82 ± 3% enhancement in bactericidal efficacy was observed for 300 nm pitch nanoneedles surface compared to the flat control substrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous studies have found better memory for multimodal than unimodal stimuli. In these studies, however, multimodal stimuli consist not only of multiple modalities, but also of more varied information than unimodal. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated encoding variability as an explanation for the multisensory benefit. Written words were studied together with two different orienting questions that promoted processing of same modality (both visual or both auditory) or different modality information (one visual and one auditory). In Experiment 1, recognition memory did not differ between constant modality and varied modality conditions. In Experiment 2, we replicated this effect with items that were repeated at a lag and we found an advantage of any type of encoding variability (within and between modality) compared to a condition in which the same orienting question was repeated. In Experiments 3 and 4, these findings were replicated when there was a day delay between study and test. We conclude that we did find an encoding variability benefit on memory, but no multisensory benefit. This conclusion challenges the sensory integration explanation and provides support for encoding variability as an explanation of the multisensory benefit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the impact of the spacing parameter on the efficacy of an array of hybrid modules functioning as both floating breakwaters and wave energy converters. The dual functionality is ensured by the ability of the device to autoadjust its submergence. The behavior of multiple 1:40 scaled modules was tested in the wave tank of the University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli". The objective was to assess the hydraulic performance of the array by analyzing transmission, reflection, and dissipation coefficients under different wave conditions. Specifically, the transmission coefficient ranges between 0.85 and 0.51, depending on the relative wavelength and wave steepness, while the reflection and dissipation coefficients vary, respectively, between 0.70–0.20 and 0.55–0.3. In any case, the results underscore the critical importance of the spacing parameter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Railway Science & Engineering is the property of Journal of Railway Science & Engineering Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The memory benefit that arises from distributing learning over time rather than in consecutive sessions is one of the most robust effects in cognitive psychology. While prior work has mainly focused on repeated exposures to the same information, in the real world, mnemonic content is dynamic, with some pieces of information staying stable while others vary. Thus, open questions remain about the efficacy of the spacing effect in the face of variability in the mnemonic content. Here, in two experiments, we investigated the contributions of mnemonic variability and the timescale of spacing intervals, ranging from seconds to days, to long-term memory. For item memory, both mnemonic variability and spacing intervals were beneficial for memory; however, mnemonic variability was greater at shorter spacing intervals. In contrast, for associative memory, repetition rather than mnemonic variability was beneficial for memory, and spacing benefits only emerged in the absence of mnemonic variability. These results highlight a critical role for mnemonic variability and the timescale of spacing intervals in the spacing effect, bringing this classic memory paradigm into more ecologically valid contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated spaced retrieval and restudying in 3 preregistered, online experiments. In all experiments, participants studied 40 Swahili–English word pair translations during an initial study phase, restudied intact pairs or attempted to retrieve the English words to Swahili cues twice in three spaced practice sessions, and then completed a final cued-recall test. All 5 sessions were separated by 2 days. In Experiment 1, we manipulated the response format during retrieval (covert vs. overt) and the test list structure (blocked vs. intermixed covert/overt retrieval trials). A memory rating was required on all trials (retrieval: “Was your answer correct?”; restudy: “Would you have remembered the correct translation?”). Response format had no effect on recall, but surprisingly, final test performance for restudied items exceeded both the overt and covert retrieval conditions. In Experiment 2, we manipulated the requirement to make a memory rating. If a memory rating was required, final test restudy performance exceeded retrieval performance, replicating Experiment 1. However, the pattern was descriptively reversed if no rating was required. In Experiment 3, the memory rating was removed altogether, and we examined recall performance for items restudied versus retrieved once, twice, or thrice. Performance improved with practice, and retrieval performance exceeded restudy performance in all conditions. The reversal of the typical retrieval practice effect observed in Experiments 1 and 2 is discussed in terms of theories of reactivity of memory judgments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Harbin Institute of Technology. Social Sciences Edition / Haerbin Gongye Daxue Xuebao. Shehui Kexue Ban is the property of Harbin Institute of Technology and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Memory should make more available things that are more likely to be needed. Across multiple environmental domains, it has been shown that such a system would match qualitatively the memory effects involving repetition, delay, and spacing (Schooler & Anderson, 2017). To obtain data of sufficient size to study how detailed patterns of past appearance predict probability of being needed again, we examined the patterns with which words appear in large two data sets: tweets from popular sources and comments on popular subreddits. The two data sets show remarkably similar statistics, which are also consistent with earlier, smaller studies of environmental statistics. None of a candidate set of mathematical models of memory do well at predicting the observed patterns in these environments. A new model of human memory based on the environmental model proposed by Anderson and Milson (1989) did better at predicting the environmental data and a wide range of behavioral studies that measure memory availability by probability of recall and speed of retrieval. A critical variable in this model was range, the span of time over which an item occurs, which was discovered in mining the environmental data. These results suggest that theories of memory can be guided by mining of the statistical structure of the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Witnesses' reports of repeated events have been the focus of much research; however, the spacing interval between each episode of the event has differed greatly. The aim of the current study was to determine whether spacing interval affects participants' memory reports. Adults (N = 217) watched one (n = 52) or four videos depicting workplace bullying. The repeated event participants watched the four videos all in one day (n = 55), one per day over four consecutive days (n = 60), or one every three days over 12 days (n = 50). One week after the last (or only) video, participants reported on that video and answered some reflective questions about the procedure. Repeated-event participants also reported on what usually happens across the videos. Single-event participants reported proportionally more accurate information about the target video than repeated-event participants, and spacing interval did not affect repeated event participants' accuracy. However, accuracy scores were close to ceiling while errors rates were at floor levels, preventing us from drawing strong conclusions. We found some evidence that episode spacing affected participants' perceptions of their memory performance. Overall, spacing may have a minimal effect on adults' memory for repeated events, but further research is required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the impact of the spacing parameter on the efficacy of an array of hybrid modules functioning as both floating breakwaters and wave energy converters. The dual functionality is ensured by the ability of the device to autoadjust its submergence. The behavior of multiple 1:40 scaled modules was tested in the wave tank of the University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”. The objective was to assess the hydraulic performance of the array by analyzing transmission, reflection, and dissipation coefficients under different wave conditions. Specifically, the transmission coefficient ranges between 0.85 and 0.51, depending on the relative wavelength and wave steepness, while the reflection and dissipation coefficients vary, respectively, between 0.70–0.20 and 0.55–0.3. In any case, the results underscore the critical importance of the spacing parameter.

Adaptive generation of spacing intervals in learning usingresponse times improves learning relative to both adaptivesystems that do not use response times and fixed spacingschemes (Mettler, Massey & Kellman, 2016). Studies haveoften used limited presentations (e.g., 4) of each learningitem. Does adaptive practice benefit learning if items arepresented until attainment of objective mastery criteria? Doesit matter if mastered items drop out of the active learning set? We compared adaptive and non-adaptive spacing underconditions of mastery and dropout. Experiment 1 comparedrandom presentation order with no dropout to adaptivespacing and mastery using the ARTS (AdaptiveResponse-time-based Sequencing) system. Adaptive spacingproduced better retention than random presentation.Experiment 2 showed clear learning advantages for adaptivespacing compared to random schedules that also includeddropout. Adaptive spacing performs better than randomschedules of practice, including when learning proceeds tomastery and items drop out when mastered.

Spacing presentations of learning items across time improvesmemory relative to massed schedules of practice – thewell-known spacing effect. Spaced practice can be furtherenhanced by adaptively scheduling the presentation of learningitems to deliver customized spacing intervals for individualitems and learners. ARTS - Adaptive Response-time-basedSequencing (Mettler, Massey, & Kellman 2016) determinesspacing dynamically in relation to each learner’s ongoing speedand accuracy in interactive learning trials. We demonstrate theeffectiveness of ARTS when applied to chemistry nomenclaturein community college chemistry courses by comparing adaptiveschedules to fixed schedules consisting of continuouslyexpanding spacing intervals. Adaptive spacing enhanced theefficiency and durability of learning, with learning gainspersisting after a two-week delay and generalizing to astandardized assessment of chemistry knowledge after 2-3months. Two additional experiments confirmed and extendedthese results in both laboratory and community college settings.

Human learning has been characterized by three robust effects (i.e.power law of learning, power law of decay, and spacing), whichhave been validated across multiple domains and time intervals. Toaccount for these different effects mathematical model of learningand retention have been developed. These models hold a great dealof potential for application a wide range of educational and trainingscenarios. However, many models are not validated according fortheir ability to make accurate predictions of human performance.The predictive demand of these models is made increasinglycomplex by the needs of training domain, needing both to predictboth skill decay and reacquisition from little historical data. In thispaper, we examine the predictive capability of the PredictivePerformance Equation (PPE) implemented in a Bayesianhierarchical model. Through a comparison of two Bayesianhierarchical models we show how hierarchical model fit to aparticipant’s performance across a set of items compared to only asingle item improves PPE’s predictive accuracy of both skill decayand reacquisition over multiple learning schedules

Spaced learning has been shown consistently to benefit memory compared with massed learning, yet the neural representations and processes underlying the spacing effect are still poorly understood. In particular, two influential models (i.e., the encoding variability hypothesis and the study-phase retrieval hypothesis) could both model behavioral performance very well, but they make opposite hypotheses regarding the spacing effect's neural mechanisms. The present study attempted to provide empirical neural evidence to adjudicate these competing hypotheses. Using spatiotemporal pattern similarity (STPS) analysis of EEG data, this study investigated whether and how repetition lags (massed/short-spaced/long-spaced) modulated the STPS's contribution to episodic memory encoding in male and female human participants. The results revealed that greater item-specific STPS in the right frontal electrodes at 543-727 ms after stimulus onset was associated with better memory performance. More importantly, this STPS was larger under the spaced-learning condition than the massed-learning condition and partially mediated the spacing effect on memory performance. In addition, we found that massed learning was associated with stronger repetition suppression in the N400 component that reflected momentary retrieval strength, but reduced activity in the late positive component that was associated with memory retrieval. These results suggest that spaced learning improves long-term memory by increasing retrieval effort and enhancing the pattern reinstatement of prior neural representations, which may be achieved by reducing the momentary retrieval strength as the extended repetition lags might help to eliminate the residual representation in working memory.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT As one of the most ubiquitous and fundamental phenomena in the history of memory research, the spacing effect provides an important window into understanding how enduring memory is formed in the brain and how different practice strategies could modulate these mechanisms to affect memory performance. By leveraging the neural representational analysis on scalp EEG data, the current study provides the first empirical data to show that spaced learning enhances memory by improving the spatiotemporal similarity that occurs at a late time window. Our results support the study-phase retrieval hypothesis but not the encoding variability hypothesis and emphasize the role of neural pattern reinstatement in strengthening memory via repeated study.

Spaced repetition seems to play a significant role in the learning and retention of words in foreign language settings. This experimental study investigated the impact of expanding and equal spacing conditions on receptive and productive English vocabulary retrieval. The participants consisted of 63 pre-intermediate EFL learners in three intact classes randomly assigned to one control and two experimental groups. A Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) was used to select 20 unknown word pairs (each word and its synonym) for teaching purposes and check the effects of the treatments at the end of the study. The word pairs were later divided into two 10-item A and B sets because of the counterbalanced design of the study. The first experimental group studied set A under an equally spaced condition (2-2-2) and set B under an expanding spaced condition (0-1-5) with the same absolute spacing value. The second experimental group studied them in the reverse order, thus counterbalancing the effect of encounter order. The control group studied the target items under the no-spacing or massed condition (0-0-0). The statistical analyses of the three groups’ posttest scores indicated that all the three groups had improved their receptive and productive vocabulary retrieval. However, an equally spaced schedule had led to a significantly higher mean score only on the receptive items of the posttest and, therefore, better vocabulary retrieval. Therefore, it is suggested that EFL teachers consider spacing in general and the equal spacing condition in particular as important elements in facilitating both receptive and productive vocabulary learning.

There has been an ongoing debate on the effectiveness of spaced and massed distribution instruction in second/foreign language learning. A number of studies in the literature have investigated the impacts of spacing effect on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners' vocabulary acquisition. This study aims to expand the body of existing research by exploring the impact of spaced versus massed distribution instruction on EFL learners' vocabulary recall and retention. To this end, the Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT) was administered to 120 Iranian EFL students to determine their level of English proficiency. Accordingly, 75 intermediate students were selected and randomly assigned to three equivalent groups: two experimental groups, namely spaced instruction (n = 25) and massed instruction (n = 25), and one control group (n = 25). After administering a pretest, the participants in both experimental groups received two different modes of instruction. The massed instruction group attended one intensive session to learn each set of target vocabularies; the spaced instruction group, on the contrary, had three sessions at irregular time intervals to learn the same vocabularies. The control group studied the same vocabularies but received no vocabulary-focused instructions. Overall, 180 vocabularies were taught to the students during a 12-week period (15 vocabularies per week). The instructions in each group took 60 min each week. Using a pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest design, the students first took a receptive vocabulary pretest before the treatment. One week after the treatment, a receptive vocabulary posttest was administered. Finally, after a 4-week interval, the students took the delayed posttest. The results revealed that the spaced instruction group significantly outperformed the massed instruction group on both immediate and delayed posttests. The findings lend support to the modulation of spaced instruction into the curricula in instructional settings as a valuable vocabulary instruction technique to promote vocabulary learning in real classroom environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The acquisition and retention of knowledge is affected by a multitude of factors including amount of practice, elapsed time since practice occurred, and the temporal distribution of practice. The third factor, temporal distribution of practice, is at the heart of research on the spacing effect. This research has consistently shown that separating practice repetitions by a delay slows acquisition but enhances retention. The current study addresses an empirical gap in the spacing effects literature. Namely, how does the allocation of a fixed number of practice repetitions among multiple sessions impact learning and retention? To address this question, we examined participants' acquisition and retention of declarative knowledge given different study schedules in which the number of practice repetitions increased, decreased, or remained constant across multiple acquisition sessions. The primary result was that retention depended strongly on the total number of sessions in which an item appeared, but not on how practice repetitions were distributed among those sessions. This outcome was consistent with predictions from a computational cognitive model of skill acquisition and retention called the Predictive Performance Equation (PPE). The success of the model in accounting for the patterns of performance across a large set of study schedules suggests that it can be used to tame the complexity of the design space and to identify schedules to enhance knowledge acquisition and retention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

More than a century of research shows that spaced learning improves long-term memory. However, there remains debate concerning why that is. A major limitation to resolving theoretical debates is the lack of evidence for how neural representations change as a function of spacing. Here, leveraging a massive-scale 7T human fMRI dataset, we tracked neural representations and behavioral expressions of memory as participants viewed thousands of natural scene images that repeated at lags ranging from seconds to many months. We show that spaced learning increases the similarity of human ventromedial prefrontal cortex representations across stimulus encounters and, critically, that these increases parallel and predict the behavioral benefits of spacing. Additionally, we show that these spacing benefits critically depend on remembering and, in turn, "re-encoding" past experience. Collectively, our findings provide fundamental insight into how spaced learning influences neural representations and why spacing is beneficial., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests The authors declare no competing financial interests., (Copyright © 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The benefit of the spacing effect is inherently hindered by perception bias in making judgments of learning (JOLs), but more insights might be found in the context of executive functions (EF), where it correlates with metacognitive strategies and cognitive loads. Thus, this article attempts to address the dilemma of the spacing effect by synthesizing both existing JOL and EF perspectives. This paper yields various mechanisms related to memory performance in spaced learning: delayed JOLs, JOL reactivity, overt retrieval, inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. All of these factors associate with the theory of mind, an important yet understudied social-cognitive skill in spaced learning which could shift our ways of thinking about spacing., Competing Interests: Conflicts of interest: In compliance with the ICMJE uniform disclosure form, all authors declare the following: Payment/services info: All authors have declared that no financial support was received from any organization for the submitted work. Financial relationships: All authors have declared that they have no financial relationships at present or within the previous three years with any organizations that might have an interest in the submitted work. Other relationships: All authors have declared that there are no other relationships or activities that could appear to have influenced the submitted work., (Copyright © 2025, Yuan et al.)

Abstract Spaced learning—the spacing effect—is a cognitive phenomenon whereby memory for to-be-learned material is better when a fixed amount of study time is spread across multiple learning sessions instead of crammed into a more condensed time period. The spacing effect has been shown to be effective across a wide range of ages and learning materials, but few studies have been conducted that look at whether spacing can be effective in real-world classrooms, using real curriculum content, with real teachers leading the intervention. In the current study, lesson plans for teaching website credibility were distributed to homeroom elementary teachers with specific instructions on how to manipulate the timing of the lessons for either a one-per-day or one-per-week delivery. One month after the final lesson, students were asked to apply their knowledge on a final test, where they evaluated two new websites. Results were mixed, suggesting that classroom noise might lessen or impede researchers’ ability to find spacing effects in naturalistic settings.

Abstract The spacing effect refers to the improvement in memory retention for materials learned in a series of sessions, as opposed to massing learning in a single session. It has been extensively studied in the domain of verbal learning using word lists. Less evidence is available for connected discourse or tasks requiring the complex coordination of verbal and other domains. In particular, the effect of spacing on the retention of words and music in song has yet to be determined. In this study, university students were taught an unaccompanied two-verse song based on traditional materials to a criterion of 95% correct memory for sung words. Subsequent training sessions were either massed or spaced by two days or one week and tested at a retention interval of three weeks. Performances were evaluated for number of correct and incorrect syllables, number of correctly and incorrectly pitched notes, degree notes were off-pitch, and number of hesitations while singing. The data revealed strong evidence for a spacing effect for song between the massed and spaced conditions at a retention interval of three weeks, and evidence of no difference between the two spaced conditions. These findings suggest that the ongoing cues offered by surface features in the song are strong enough to enable verbatim recall across spaced conditions, as long as the spacing interval reaches a critical threshold.

Sana and colleagues (2022) have raised a number of challenges regarding the operationalisation of constructs and selection of articles to Chen et al.'s (Educational Psychology Review 33:1499–1522, 2021) suggestion that resting from cognitive activity could possibly allow for working memory recovery and so explain some of the data on the spacing effect. In our response, we indicate that the goal of our proposed framework was to try to resolve some mixed results of the spacing and interleaving effects and offer an alternative explanation for those mixed results, rather than proposing a theory of everything. We acknowledge that there are other important factors, which does not however, provide grounds for rejecting our hypothesis. Additional empirical studies are needed to determine whether rest and its effect on working memory are important when analysing the spacing effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the complexities and irrevocable consequences associated with bridge scour have attracted researchers interest, their studies scarcely indicated the effect of a bridge pier proximity to an abutment. This research aims to measure maximum scour depth and exhibit the impact of pier-abutment scour interference based on laboratory experiments where vertical-wall abutment and two shapes of a pier (oblong and lenticular) were used at three different spacings (23.5, 16.0, 9.0 cm). The results showed an obvious increase in the scour depth ratio when increasing flow intensity, Froude number, and a decreasing flow depth. They also showed that reduced pier-abutment spacing was accompanied by increase in pier scour for both shapes while decrease in abutment scour. The maximum scour depth that caused by an oblong shape was more than a lenticular shape by about 10.8%. Furthermore, new empirical equations were derived using IBM SPSS Statistics 21 with determination coefficients of 0.969, 0.974, and 0.978 for oblong, lenticular and abutment, respectively. They showed the correlation between predicted and observed data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spaced repetition seems to play a significant role in the learning and retention of words in foreign language settings. This experimental study investigated the impact of expanding and equal spacing conditions on receptive and productive English vocabulary retrieval. The participants consisted of 63 pre-intermediate EFL learners in three intact classes randomly assigned to one control and two experimental groups. A Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) was used to select 20 unknown word pairs (each word and its synonym) for teaching purposes and check the effects of the treatments at the end of the study. The word pairs were later divided into two 10-item A and B sets because of the counterbalanced design of the study. The first experimental group studied set A under an equally spaced condition (2-2-2) and set B under an expanding spaced condition (0-1-5) with the same absolute spacing value. The second experimental group studied them in the reverse order, thus counterbalancing the effect of encounter order. The control group studied the target items under the no-spacing or massed condition (0-0-0). The statistical analyses of the three groups' posttest scores indicated that all the three groups had improved their receptive and productive vocabulary retrieval. However, an equally spaced schedule had led to a significantly higher mean score only on the receptive items of the posttest and, therefore, better vocabulary retrieval. Therefore, it is suggested that EFL teachers consider spacing in general and the equal spacing condition in particular as important elements in facilitating both receptive and productive vocabulary learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent work suggests that optimal spacing in learningrequires adaptive procedures (Mettler, Massey & Kellman,2016). Here, we studied how adaptive techniques might befurther enhanced by combining active and passive learningmodes. Participants learned geography facts that werescheduled using the ARTS (Adaptive Reaction-Time-basedScheduling) system under four conditions involving passiveand/or active trials. Conditions included: a) Passive Onlypresentations of learning items, b) Passive Initial Blocksfollowed by active adaptive scheduling, c) Passive InitialItems followed by active adaptive scheduling for each itemintroduced, or d) Active Only learning with no passivepresentations. We found an advantage for combinations ofactive and passive presentation (by blocks or items) overPassive Only or Active Only presentation. Passive trialspresented in blocks at the beginning of learning showed bestperformance. We discuss possible explanations for thesedifferences and suggest principles underlying optimalcombinations of active and passive modes in adaptivelearning.

The spacing effect refers to increased retention following learning instances that are spaced out in time compared with massed together in time. By one account, the advantages of spaced learning should be independent of task particulars and previous learning experiences given that spacing effects have been demonstrated in a variety of tasks across the lifespan. However, by another account, spaced learning should be affected by previous learning because past learning affects the memory and attention processes that form the crux of the spacing effect. The current study investigated whether individuals' learning histories affect the role of spacing in category learning. We examined the effect of spacing on 24 2- to 3.5-year-old children's learning of categories organized by properties to which children's previous learning experiences have biased them to attend (i.e., shape) and properties to which children are less biased to attend (i.e., texture and color). Spaced presentations led to significantly better learning of shape categories, but not of texture or color categories, compared with massed presentations. In addition, generalized estimating equations analyses revealed positive relations between the size of children's "shape-side" productive vocabularies and their shape category learning and between the size of children's "against-the-system" productive vocabularies and their texture category learning. These results suggest that children's attention to and memory for novel object categories are strongly related to their individual word-learning histories. Moreover, children's learned attentional biases affected the types of categories for which spacing facilitated learning. These findings highlight the importance of considering how learners' previous experiences may influence future learning.

This study investigates the underexplored dynamics of a system comprising two in-line elliptical-section cylinders interacting with the flow, each placed vertically and endowed with two degrees of freedom (2-DOF). We examine how spacing affects transverse and streamwise wake- and vortex-induced vibration (VIV) in bodies that might be used in civil and offshore projects, susceptible to VIV, and the increasingly popular bio-inspired fluttering for sustainable energy conversion. Utilizing a range of reduced velocities (U r (U r x , U r y) ∈ [ 2 , 14 ]) and spacing ratios ( L ∗ ∈ [ 2 , 6 ]), our numerical simulations, based on the overset mesh approach in OpenFOAM®, explore the behavior of two tandem identical elliptic cylinders moving at a constant Reynolds number (Re = 150). The results reveal ten wake modes and two gap flow patterns, categorizing spacing into small ( L ∗ = 2), moderate ( L ∗ = 3), and large ( L ∗ = 4 , 5 , 6). Conventional lock-in regions emerge in both directions for small and moderate spacing ratios. Notably, a collision between cylinders is observed at U r ∈ [ 8 , 9 ] for L ∗ = 2. Large spacing scenarios exhibit wider lock-in regions for the upstream cylinder (UC) in the transverse direction and wake-galloping for the downstream cylinder (DC). In the streamwise direction, both cylinders display conventional lock-in and wake-galloping, with the 2-DOF system demonstrating superior energy extraction compared to its 1-DOF counterpart in an identical configuration. • The vibration amplitudes are greater when the elliptical cylinders are used in tandem. • A tandem cylinder system has a larger lock-in region. • A slightly higher transverse amplitude vibration occurs from two degrees of freedom motion. • The addition of a second degree of freedom results in increased energy extraction. • For some reduced velocities, the cylinders collide when the spacing ratio is small. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the large eddy simulation method and the actuator line model are used to investigate the wake redirection of two turbines. Different turbine spacings and yaw-based control of the upstream turbine are considered. The effects of yaw angle and turbine spacing on the output power of two turbines are comprehensively analyzed, and the physical mechanisms of the wake deficit, deflection and interaction are revealed from the distributions of the wake velocity, turbulence intensity and the structures of wake vortices. The results show that the overall power of two turbines is related to the yaw angle of the upstream turbine and the spacing between two turbines. We find yaw angle is the dominant factor in the total power improvement compared to turbine spacing. Still, a large yaw angle causes significant power fluctuations of the downstream turbine. The deficit of wake velocity and the change of output power are determined by the characteristics of the wake flow field, which the yaw control regulates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Successive relearning involves repeated retrieval practice of the same information (with feedback) over multiple, spaced sessions. We implemented successive relearning in an introductory psychology class to explore potential learning benefits. After each weekly lecture, students were sent links via e-mail to engage in three learning practice sessions, each separated by 2 days. Half the students engaged in successive relearning (relearn condition), answering 20 fill-in-the-blank questions with corrective feedback. Within each session, correctly answered questions were dropped, whereas incorrectly answered questions were presented up to two more times. The other half of students restudied the same 20 sentences without blanks twice per session (restudy condition). Unlike previous research, we controlled the exposure duration of the learning materials between the relearn and restudy conditions. Learning practice sessions continued throughout the remaining 10 weeks of the semester, with students alternating each week between the relearning and restudying tasks. Recall of course material at the end of the semester was better for relearning compared with restudying. Increased recall during relearning sessions was associated with further learning benefits including improved metacognition, increased self-reported sense of mastery, increased attentional control, and reduced anxiety. Individual differences were not associated with the benefit of relearning over restudying in the retention tests. Qualitative feedback indicated that students found successive relearning to be enjoyable and valuable. Our research indicates that successive relearning is a valuable addition to any university course and is easy to implement using digital resources. Educational Impact and Implications Statement: Successive relearning is a highly effective learning technique that involves students taking several practice tests on to-be-learned material (with corrective feedback), with each test separated by a time interval of a few days. We had students engage in successive relearning in a large introductory Psychology course throughout a semester. We found that students not only remembered more course content (compared with those who restudied the material for approximately the same amount of time), but they also reported less anxious affect, felt that they had better attentional control and more mastery over the material, and had more accurate metacognitions. These benefits were not observed immediately but required several practice testing sessions before they were revealed. Overall, the results suggest that there are multiple learning outcomes that benefit from repeated testing similar sessions that are spaced apart over time and that similar sessions should be implemented regularly in real classrooms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This meta‐analysis investigates earlier studies of spaced practice in second language learning. We retrieved 98 effect sizes from 48 experiments (N = 3,411). We compared the effects of three aspects of spacing (spaced vs. massed, longer vs. shorter spacing, and equal vs. expanding spacing) on immediate and delayed posttests to calculate mean effect sizes. We also examined the extent to which nine empirically motivated variables moderated the effects of spaced practice. Results showed that (a) spacing had a medium‐to‐large effect on second language learning; (b) shorter spacing was as effective as longer spacing in immediate posttests but was less effective in delayed posttests than longer spacing; (c) equal and expanding spacing were statistically equivalent; and (d) variability in spacing effect size across studies was explained methodologically by the learning target, number of sessions, type of practice, activity type, feedback timing, and retention interval. The methodological and pedagogical significance of the findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the distributed practice effects on L2 speaking task repetition (TR). Previous research indicated that speaking TR has beneficial effects on learners' later speech. To examine the distributed practice effects on learners' second repetition and post‐repetition speech, 38 university students were engaged in cartoon narrations. The procedure included: a pre‐test, two repetition tasks with a 1‐week intersession interval (spaced practice group) or without an interval (massed practice group), and a post‐test. The grammatical complexity, grammatical accuracy, fluency, and lexical variety of learners' performances were examined using ANCOVA. The lexical variety scores increased more in the spaced practice group than the massed practice group in the pre‐ and post‐test comparisons, indicating that spaced TR may induce lexical variety in post‐repetition speech. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of distribution of practice on the acquisition, retention with different intervals 1, 7, and also judgment of learning accuracy of forehand drive in table tennis. The 32 female student with 18- 24 years old that passed specialized table tennis unit, contributed as convicted. They randomly were divided to massed and distributed practice groups. The skill used in this study was the forehand drive. After pretest, the massed group practiced all 240 Trails in one session, and the distributed practice group practiced 60 trials per day on 4 consecutive days. After acquisition phase, Participants were asked to predict performance on the retention phase. Participants were asked, “what would you predict your average score on the first the retention test? “And then half of participants of each group contributed for a retention test 1 day later, half of other participants of each group contributed for retention test 7 days later. The data were analyzed by independent sample t test and two –way analysis of variants (ANOVA) with repeated test. The result showed significant differences between massed and distributed practice groups in the acquisition, retention (1, 7) test and also judgment of learning (p

Spaced learning—the spacing effect—is a cognitive phenomenon whereby memory for to-be-learned material is better when a fixed amount of study time is spread across multiple learning sessions instead of crammed into a more condensed time period. The spacing effect has been shown to be effective across a wide range of ages and learning materials, but few studies have been conducted that look at whether spacing can be effective in real-world classrooms, using real curriculum content, with real teachers leading the intervention. In the current study, lesson plans for teaching website credibility were distributed to homeroom elementary teachers with specific instructions on how to manipulate the timing of the lessons for either a one-per-day or one-per-week delivery. One month after the final lesson, students were asked to apply their knowledge on a final test, where they evaluated two new websites. Results were mixed, suggesting that classroom noise might lessen or impede researchers' ability to find spacing effects in naturalistic settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The spacing effect refers to the improvement in memory retention for materials learned in a series of sessions, as opposed to massing learning in a single session. It has been extensively studied in the domain of verbal learning using word lists. Less evidence is available for connected discourse or tasks requiring the complex coordination of verbal and other domains. In particular, the effect of spacing on the retention of words and music in song has yet to be determined. In this study, university students were taught an unaccompanied two-verse song based on traditional materials to a criterion of 95% correct memory for sung words. Subsequent training sessions were either massed or spaced by two days or one week and tested at a retention interval of three weeks. Performances were evaluated for number of correct and incorrect syllables, number of correctly and incorrectly pitched notes, degree notes were off-pitch, and number of hesitations while singing. The data revealed strong evidence for a spacing effect for song between the massed and spaced conditions at a retention interval of three weeks, and evidence of no difference between the two spaced conditions. These findings suggest that the ongoing cues offered by surface features in the song are strong enough to enable verbatim recall across spaced conditions, as long as the spacing interval reaches a critical threshold. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]