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The uropygial gland or preen gland is a complex holocrine structure present only in birds, and plays an important role in avian communication and reproduction. This gland produces preen oil, which helps birds maintain intact plumage, plumage colorage, but also possesses antibacterial and anti-predator properties, and the evidence for these claims is still in infancy. Preen gland harbour a large number of microbiota among which as many as 110 are bacterial genera dominated by Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, etc., families, and the roles of these microbes are largely unknown. However, these microbes are believed to maintain symbiotic relationship with the host and exert positive effects in the host’s physiology and behaviour. Many studies have proven that these microbes produce chemical cues as metabolic by-products that modulate the host’s behavior. In birds, these symbiotic microbes are needed for normal growth, development and even reproduction. Earlier findings about preen gland microbiota of birds connect it to good feather condition, recent evidences connect it to antifungal and antimicrobial activities. Although preen gland plays a major role in bird’s development, symbiotic microbes of preen gland seem to play a crucial role in reproduction and pheromonal communication. Here, we review the role of microbes present in avian preen gland in production of chemical signals and document the relationship between the microbes and preen gland in chemical communication.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Quite a few plants are in use to treat female infertility and associated problems. Availing the cues from traditional knowledge, phytochemical studies and ethnopharmacological evidences, the aphrodisiac plant Ficus religiosa (F. religiosa) is widely in use to cure infertility in women. For instance, the juice of leaf and aerial root of F. religiosa is reported to normalize the dysregulated menstrual cycle in women. Besides, it is believed that regular circumambulation of F. religiosa during the early hours of the morning helps women in alleviating infertility which could be attributed to the potential phytovolatiles released from F. religiosa. However, the evidences for therapeutic potential of F. religiosa in treating female infertility are arbitrary and mostly anecdotal. Aim of the study The present study was aimed at examining if extracts of fresh and/or dry leaf of F. religiosa would cure polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) in the rat model. Methods Rats were divided into seven groups; control (Group I), PCOS-induced (P.O, Letrozole −1 mg/kg BW for 21 days) and untreated (Group II), PCOS-induced and treated with the leaf extracts of F. religiosa (Groups III–VI), and, PCOS-induced and treated with pioglitazone (Group VII). The estrous intervals, body and organ weights (ovary and uterus), and serum hormones (testosterone, luteinizing hormone [LH], estrogen, and progesterone) were measured, and the expression of Cyp19a1 (aromatase), and Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) were assessed in the experimental rats. The levels of 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD), 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17β-HSD), and antioxidants (MDA, GSH, GPx, SOD, and CAT) were also quantified. Besides, the putative volatile compounds in the esterified leaf extracts were identified using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). Results Letrozole treatment induced irregular estrous and altered weight of organs and hormonal milieu, which were reverted to normal in leaf extracts-treated PCOS-induced rats. Remarkably, fresh leaf treatment up-regulated Cyp19a1and PPAR-γ and increased the levels of 3β-HSD and 17β-HSD. We found 3-acetoxy-3-hydroxy-propionic acid in fresh and dry leaf extracts, which we attribute to efficacy of the extracts in alleviating PCOS. Conclusion Put together, our findings suggest the leaves of F. religiosa as potential in alleviating PCOS, mainly due to the presence of putative volatile molecules. Further screening of the leaves of F. religiosa is recommended to identify other key molecules and to develop a systematic therapeutic intervention for PCOS.

Behavioral expressions and biochemical composition of body exudates are significantly altered in concert with the endocrine status, which are all clear indicators of physiological conditions of animals. In this study, we sought to infer about the reproductive physiological status of Kangayam cattle (Bos indicus) by analyzing behaviors, endocrine pattern, and body exudates and further to discover estrous biomarkers so as to facilitate timely artificial insemination/mating and to aid in aspects of conservation of the species. Therefore, in this study, we followed Kangayam cows through pre-estrous to post-estrous phases to correlate the endocrine dependence of biochemical constituents in urine and cervical mucus and sought to identify estrous biomarkers. Behavioral estrus was confirmed in 10 cows, from which urine samples were collected and subjected to determination of LH, FSH, estrogens, progesterone, proteins, and lipids. Furthermore, urinary fatty acids and proteins were profiled using gas chromatography and SDS-PAGE, respectively. The volatile compounds in the urine and cervical mucus were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. The data revealed that LH, FSH, and estrogen levels increased significantly in estrous urine compared with nonestrous urine, whereas progesterone status was vice versa (P0.05). The lipid content was also significantly higher in estrous urine than in pre- and post-estrous urines (P0.05). There were also cyclical variations of volatiles and fatty acid profiles across phases of the estrous cycle. More acidic compounds were present in estrous urine, rendering it more acidic, than in pre- and post-estrous urines. Interestingly, oleic acid, which was present as a fatty acid in estrous and post-estrous urines, appeared to be a volatile in post-estrous urine and estrous cervical mucus. In addition, octanoic and butanoic acids were specific to both estrous urine and cervical mucus, indicating their possible candidature as estrous biomarkers. SDS-PAGE analysis showed pronounced expression of a 98 kDa protein in post-estrous urine, which in matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry was identified as albumin. Our results demonstrate multiple biomarkers in estrous urine and specific volatiles in cervical mucus that offer scope to develop viable estrus detection kits for Kangayam cows.

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are persistent organic pollutants that contribute to endocrine/gonadal disruption. This study was designed to investigate the endocrine modulating role of pheromones in alleviating the reproductive toxic effects of 3-MC (3-methylcholanthrene), one of the common PAHs, in rat model. The rats were injected intraperitoneally with 3-MC at a dose of 25 mg kg(-1) BW. The serum levels of testosterone and other biochemical parameters were altered to significant levels in 3-MC-treated rats and oestrus-specific urine exposure restored all these effects to near normal. Although testis weight did not indicate any significant change, sperm and spermatid counts were significantly reduced in 3-MC-treated rats, which became normal in oestrus-urine-exposed rats. Hence, this study suggests that oestrus-specific urinary pheromones have the potential to modulate the endocrine system and alleviate the male reproductive toxic effects produced by 3-MC.

BACKGROUND Atherosclerosis-induced coronary heart disease – caused by elevated levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and inflammation – is one of the most prevalent diseases. Monounsaturated fatty acids are reported to prevent atherosclerosis; emu oil is a rich source of monounsaturated fatty acid, and we hypothesize that emu oil supplementation could lower inflammation and prevent atherosclerosis in diet-induced obese (DIO) animals. Male Wistar rats were randomly divided into five groups (n = 6), and fed with normal diet (chow pellet; ND), or with cafeteria diet (CD), or with CD along with emu oil supplementation at three different doses: ED1 (2 mL), ED2 (4 mL) and ED3 (8 mL) kg−1 body weight (BW), respectively. RESULTS After 12 weeks, the animals were sacrificed and serum was analysed for measuring lipid profile, C-reactive proteins, testosterone and luteinizing hormone. Histopathological studies were performed to observe atherogenic changes in thoracic aorta. Restoration of altered lipid and hormonal profiles, and inhibition of atherogenic changes in thoracic aorta, were observed with supplementation of emu oil, confirming its anti-atherosclerotic activity. CONCLUSION The high content of oleic acid in emu oil could have orchestrated – either solely or in combination with linoleic and linolenic acids – causing the upregulation of testosterone biosynthesis and inhibition of atheromatous plaque formation in diet-induced obese animals. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry

This communication explains the biosynthesis of stable silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) from Melia azedarach and its cytotoxicity against in vitro HeLa cells and in vivo Dalton's ascites lymphoma (DAL) mice model. The AgNPs synthesis was determined by UV–visible spectrum and it was further characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. Zeta potential analysis revealed stable AgNPs at −24.9 mV. UV visible spectrum indicated an absorption peak at 436 nm which reflects its specific Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR). Biosynthesized AgNPs were predominantly cubical and spherical with an average particle size of 78 nm approximately as observed through SEM and DLS analysis, respectively. Cytotoxicity of biosynthesized AgNPs against in vitro Human epithelial carcinoma cell line (HeLa) showed a dose–response activity. Lethal dose (LD 50 ) value was found to be 300 μg/mL of AgNPs against HeLa cell line. Cytotoxicity against normal continuous cell line human breast lactating, donor 100 (HBL 100) was found only in increased concentration of both AgNPs and 5-FU. In addition, in vivo DAL mice model showed significant increase in life span, induction of apoptosis was evidenced by acridine orange and ethidium bromide (AO and EB) staining.

Squalene in the rat clitoral gland is reported to be semi-volatile and may serve as a chemo-signal. The objective was to determine squalene concentrations in the clitoral gland throughout the reproductive cycle. Clitoral glands were extracted with dichloromethane; 23 compounds were identified with Gas Chromatography linked Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). Since squalene concentrations were significantly higher during proestrus and estrus, and remarkably reduced during metestrus and diestrus, we inferred that it could be an ovulation-indicating chemosignal in the female rat, acting as a scent mark for the male. This hypothesis was tested by investigating its efficacy to attract males, including studying the role of the olfactory-vomeronasal system of the male in perceiving squalene. For detection of squalene, males used their conventional olfactory system when at a distance from the female, whereas the vomeronasal organ was used when they were in close proximity to the female. We concluded that squalene was a female-specific chemosignal that attracted males, and furthermore, that the olfactory-vomeronasal system had an important role in the perception of squalene.

The focus of the study is to compare the antibacterial efficacy of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) fabricated by exploiting biological (a mangrove plant, Rhizophora apiculata) and chemical means (Glucose). The synthesized nanoparticles were characterised using UV-visible absorption spectrophotometry (UV-vis), Fourier transform Infra-red Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Biologically synthesized silver nanoparticles (BAgNPs) were observed at 423 nm with particle sizes of 19-42 nm. The chemically synthesized silver nanoparticles (CAgNPs) showed a maximum peak at 422 nm with particle sizes of 13-19 nm. An obvious superiority of the antibacterial potency of BAgNPs compared to the CAgNPs as denoted by the zone of inhibition (ZoI) was noted when the nanoparticles were treated against seven different Microbial Type Culture Collection (MTCC) strains. The current study therefore elucidates that the synthesized AgNPs were efficient against the bacterial strains tested.

The present investigation emphasizes biomimetic synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using an aqueous extract of Areca catechu and its impact on a Dalton's ascites lymphoma (DAL) mice model. The ultraviolet (UV) spectrum of AgNPs at 428 nm confirmed the spherical shape of the particles and average size of 80 nm was determined using electron microscopic analysis. Elemental silver and adhered biomolecules conferred a synergetic antitumor activity with a significant increase in life span of tumor-induced mice with decreased body weight and tumor volume. Acridine Orange staining and DNA fragmentation studies of harvested tumor cells showed higher level of cytotoxicity by AgNPs when compared to aqueous extract of Areca catechu.

A standardized extract of the plant Caralluma fimbriata (Slimaluma?) is widely used in the management of obesity but its mode of action is not yet clarified. This study investigated the ability of Caralluma fimbriata extract (CFE) to modify pre-adipocyte cell division and thus the development of hyper-plastic obesity. Mouse 3T3-L1 pre-adipocyte cell line samples were treated with different concentrations of an extract of CFE standardized against its pregnane glycoside content. Plain medium formed the negative control and hydroxyurea was the positive control. The cells were counted at 12-hour intervals, and their viability tested using the MTT assay. The treated cells were subjected to direct and indirect immunofluorescent assays for cyclin D1. CFE inhibited 3T3-L1 cell growth in a dose and duration-dependent manner, with results comparable to those produced by hydroxyurea. The viability of CFE-treated cells was reduced. Direct and indirect immunofluorescent assays demonstrated that CFE inhibits import of cyclin D1into the nucleus. CFE appears to inhibit pre-adipocyte cell division by interfering with a mechanism preceding the import of cyclin D1-CDk4/6 complex into the nucleus during the early G1 phase of the cell cycle, suggesting that CFE has the potential to inhibit hyperplastic obesity.

Atherosclerosis-induced coronary heart disease - caused by elevated levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and inflammation - is one of the most prevalent diseases. Monounsaturated fatty acids are reported to prevent atherosclerosis; emu oil is a rich source of monounsaturated fatty acid, and we hypothesize that emu oil supplementation could lower inflammation and prevent atherosclerosis in diet-induced obese (DIO) animals. Male Wistar rats were randomly divided into five groups (n = 6), and fed with normal diet (chow pellet; ND), or with cafeteria diet (CD), or with CD along with emu oil supplementation at three different doses: ED1 (2 mL), ED2 (4 mL) and ED3 (8 mL) kg(-1) body weight (BW), respectively.After 12 weeks, the animals were sacrificed and serum was analysed for measuring lipid profile, C-reactive proteins, testosterone and luteinizing hormone. Histopathological studies were performed to observe atherogenic changes in thoracic aorta. Restoration of altered lipid and hormonal profiles, and inhibition of atherogenic changes in thoracic aorta, were observed with supplementation of emu oil, confirming its anti-atherosclerotic activity.The high content of oleic acid in emu oil could have orchestrated - either solely or in combination with linoleic and linolenic acids - causing the upregulation of testosterone biosynthesis and inhibition of atheromatous plaque formation in diet-induced obese animals. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

Adriamycin is an anthracycline antibiotic used as anticancer drug since past few decades. Though effective against cancer, it is cardiotoxic, nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic and also toxic for reproductive system. Although a number of potential toxic mechanisms have been identified following exposure to adriamycin, the major pathogenic mechanism appears to be the generation of toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS). Animals treated with adriamycin have shown a decrease in total sperm count. This implies that adriamycin impairs the process of spermatogenesis. Epididymal white adipose tissue (EWAT) is necessary for normal spermatogenesis, and decrease in the EWAT causes disturbance in spermatogenesis. Factor X is an unknown molecule synthesized by EWAT that plays crucial role in spermatogenesis. Adriamycin inhibits Kruppel-like factor 4 (KLF-4) and thus downregulates the adipogenesis process needed to maintain the EWAT mass. Apart form adipocytes, KLF-4 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) are also found in spermatogonium and testis, implying its vital role in spermatogenesis. Adriamycin treatment inhibits KLF-4 and thus PPAR-γ in EWAT and spermatogonium. Reduction of EWAT might cause a decrease in Factor X level. Declining of Factor X level, KLF-4 and PPAR-γ together will lead to disturbance in spermatogenesis process.

The risk for diabetes increases with increasing BMI

The behavioural assays were carried out in a Y-maze wherein intact, castrated and testosterone-treated male mice were exposed to oestrus and non-oestrus urine samples. The intact male mice investigated more frequently and spent more time in the Y-maze arm with oestrus urine than in that with non-oestrus urine. In contrast, the castrated mice were not attracted to oestrus urine, whereas testosterone-treated mice showed preference for oestrus urine. The rate of self-grooming was higher in intact males in case of exposure to oestrus urine while the rate was lower with respect to non-oestrus urine. However, castrated mice exhibited less self-grooming behaviour which was partially restored by testosterone treatment. The results suggest that self-grooming behaviour is an indicator of detection and discrimination of oestrus by males, and supports the androgen role in male chemosensory ability to discriminate between oestrus and non-oestrus female odours.

Shedding of microvesicles from live cells with 40- 100 nm size is termed as exosomes or nanovesicles. They are secreted by various types of cells such as mast cells, dentritic cells, epithelial cells and so on. Inward interaction of plasma membrane along with its intracellular components results in the formation of budded microvesicles. These nanovesicles can also act as signalosomes, since it carry genetic information such as exosomal shuttle RNA, miRNA, DNA and proteins. Exosomes mediated signals are as similar as their cellular origin and it also transfers the information efficiently through cellular communication. Taking advantage of this peculiar function, cancer cells derived exosomes triggers cellular proliferation and attains malignancy by transferring the signals even to distant cells. Cell cycle dysregulation was well documented in Dalton's ascites lymphoma mice and intra peritoneal injection of 1×106 cells from DAL mice could induce metastasis in normal Swiss albino mouse within 10 days. To conclude, exchange of cellular signals by cancer cells derived exosomes efficiently induces metastasis in DAL mice. Consequently, this review will emphasize the role of exosomes in regulating cancer stemness and its microenvironment.

Species-specific chemical signals released through urine, sweat, saliva and feces are involved in communication between animals. Urinary biochemical constituents along with pheromones may contribute to variation across reproductive cycles and facilitate to estrus detection. Hence, the present study was designed to analyze such biochemical profiles, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, fatty acids, in response with steroid hormones such as estradiol and progesterone. The experimental groups were normal, prepubertal, ovariectomized, and ovariectomized with estrogentreated female mice. In normal mice, the protein and lipid concentrations in urine were significantly higher in proestrus and estrus phases and the quantity of fatty acids was also comparatively higher in estrus. Furthermore, certain fatty acids, namely tridecanoic, palmitic and oleic acids, were present during proestrus and estrus phases, but were exclusively absent in ovariectomized mice. However, the carbohydrate level was equally maintained throughout the four phases of estrous cycle. For successful communication, higher concentrations of protein and specific fatty acids in estrus are directly involved. The significant increase in estradiol at estrus and progesterone at metestrus seems to be of greater importance in the expression pattern of biochemical constituents and may play a notable role in estrous cycle regulation. Thus, we conclude that the variations observed in the concentration of the biochemical constituents depend on the phase of the reproductive cycle as well as hormonal status of animals. The appearance of protein and specific fatty acids during estrus phase raises the possibility to use these as a urinary indicators for estrus detection.

Our recent findings revealed that the preputial gland of male house rat contains 20 kDa protein, however, the role of androgen in the production of this protein is not known. Hence, the present study was carried out to evaluate the androgen dependency of 20 kDa protein in the preputial gland of house rat (Rattus rattus) and to compare its presence in female clitoral gland. Further, on castration the amount of glandular protein in male was significantly decreased to a certain extent, while testosterone treatment on castrated males showed an increasing trend. The electrophorogram of male house rat showed six different protein fractions with molecular weights of 90, 70, 60, 50, 35 and 20 kDa. However, the 70, 60, 50 and 35 kDa were absent in female. Among the different fractions, 90 and 20 kDa proteins were prominent. On castration, the 20 kDa protein was disappeared; while on testosterone treatment the protein reappeared. Thus, the present study concludes that the 20 kDa protein is a testosterone dependent sex-associated protein. Since urinary protein is found to act as carrier for volatile substances in pheromonal communication. The present study suggests that the glandular protein may bind with the volatile compounds produced from preputial gland. Identification of this carrier protein in the preputial gland explores the possibility of developing pheromonal trap for rodent pest management (RPM).