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Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is responsible for the worldwide coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Although the pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection is still being elucidated, the nicotinic cholinergic system may play a role. To evaluate the interaction of the SARS-CoV-2 virus with human nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), we assessed the in vitro interaction of the spike protein of the SARS-CoV-2 virus with various subunits of nAChRs. Electrophysiology recordings were conducted at α4β2, α3β4, α3α5β4, α4α6β2, and α7 neuronal nAChRs expressed in Xenopus oocytes. In cells expressing the α4β2 or α4α6β2 nAChRs, exposure to the 1 µg/mL Spike-RBD protein caused a marked reduction of the current amplitude; effects at the α3α5β4 receptor were equivocal and effects at the α3β4 and α7 receptors were absent. Overall, the spike protein of the SARS-CoV-2 virus can interact with select nAChRs, namely the α4β2 and/or α4α6β2 subtypes, likely at an allosteric binding site. The nAChR agonist varenicline has the potential to interact with Spike-RBD and form a complex that may interfere with spike function, although this effect appears to have been lost with the omicron mutation. These results help understand nAChR’s involvement with acute and long-term sequelae associated with COVID-19, especially within the central nervous system.

Tropisetron, a 5-HT 3 receptor antagonist commonly prescribed for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting also exhibits high affinity, partial agonist activity at α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7 nAChRs). α7 nAChRs are considered viable therapeutic targets for neuropsychiatric disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Here we further explored the nAChR pharmacology of tropisetron to include the homomeric α7 nAChR and recently characterized heteromeric α7β2 nAChR (1:10 ratio) and we evaluated its cognitive effects in young and aged animals. Electrophysiological studies on human nAChRs expressed in Xenopus oocytes confirmed the partial agonist activity of tropisetron at α7 nAChRs (EC 50 ∼2.4 μM) with a similar effect at α7β2 nAChRs (EC 50 ∼1.5 μM). Moreover, currents evoked by irregular pulses of acetylcholine (40 μM) at α7 and α7β2 nAChRs were enhanced during sustained exposure to low concentrations of tropisetron (10 and 30 nM) indicative of a “priming” or co-agonist effect. Tropisetron (0.1–10 mg/kg) improved novel object recognition performance in young Sprague-Dawley rats and in aged Fischer rats. In aged male and female rhesus monkeys, tropisetron (0.03–1 mg/kg) produced a 17% increase from baseline levels in delayed match to sample long delay accuracy while combination of non-effective doses of donepezil (0.1 mg/kg) and tropisetron (0.03 and 0.1 mg/kg) produced a 24% change in accuracy. Collectively, these animal experiments indicate that tropisetron enhances cognition and has the ability to improve the effective dose range of currently prescribed AD therapy (donepezil). Moreover, these effects may be explained by tropisetron's ability to sensitize α7 containing nAChRs to low levels of acetylcholine.

Here we asked the question whether fluorescence labelled small molecule agonists of the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) might be identified to enhance receptor studies. Enantiomerically pure 3-amino-quinuclidines appended with fluorophores at the 3-amino group were synthesized and tested by electrophysiology on human α7 nAChR in Xenopus oocytes, uncovering (R)-4 and (R)-9 as the first examples of fluorescent α7 nAChR agonists. These molecules elegantly incorporate the fluorescent reporter group as part of the pharmacophore itself and provide a new class of tool compounds for the study of these ligand gated ion channels. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

While a plethora of ligands are known for the well studied α7 and α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), only very few ligands address the related α3β2 nAChR expressed in the central nervous system and at the neuromuscular junction. Starting with the public database ChEMBL organized in the chemical space of Molecular Quantum Numbers (MQN, a series of 42 integer value descriptors of molecular structure), a visual survey of nearest neighbors of the α7 nAChR partial agonist N-(3R)-1-azabicyclo[2.2.2]oct-3-yl-4-chlorobenzamide (PNU-282,987) pointed to N-(2-halobenzyl)-3-aminoquinuclidines as possible nAChR modulators. This simple "chemical space walk" was performed using a web-browser available at www.gdb.unibe.ch . Electrophysiological recordings revealed that these ligands represent a new and to date most potent class of positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) of the α3β2 nAChR, which also exert significant effects in vivo. The present discovery highlights the value of surveying chemical space neighbors of known drugs within public databases to uncover new pharmacology.

Background: Pentameric ligand-gated ion channels are modulated by general anesthetics. Results: The crystal structure of ELIC in complex with bromoform reveals anesthetic binding in the channel pore and in novel sites in the transmembrane and extracellular domain. Conclusion: General anesthetics allosterically modulate channel function via multisite binding. Significance: Our data reveal detailed insight into multisite recognition of general anesthetics at the structural level., Pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGICs), such as nicotinic acetylcholine, glycine, γ-aminobutyric acid GABAA/C receptors, and the Gloeobacter violaceus ligand-gated ion channel (GLIC), are receptors that contain multiple allosteric binding sites for a variety of therapeutics, including general anesthetics. Here, we report the x-ray crystal structure of the Erwinia chrysanthemi ligand-gated ion channel (ELIC) in complex with a derivative of chloroform, which reveals important features of anesthetic recognition, involving multiple binding at three different sites. One site is located in the channel pore and equates with a noncompetitive inhibitor site found in many pLGICs. A second transmembrane site is novel and is located in the lower part of the transmembrane domain, at an interface formed between adjacent subunits. A third site is also novel and is located in the extracellular domain in a hydrophobic pocket between the β7–β10 strands. Together, these results extend our understanding of pLGIC modulation and reveal several specific binding interactions that may contribute to modulator recognition, further substantiating a multisite model of allosteric modulation in this family of ion channels.

The Chemical Universe Generated Databases up to 11 atoms of CNOF (GDB-11) and up to 13 atoms of CNOClS (GDB-13) were used to enumerate analogues of the diamine part of two known α7 nicotinic receptor agonists and construct libraries of virtual analogues of these drugs. The libraries were scored using structure-based (docking to the nicotine binding site of the acetylcholine binding protein 1uw6.pdb) or ligand-based (similarity to the parent drugs) methods, and the top-scoring virtual ligands were inspected for easily accessible synthetic targets. In total, 21 diamines were prepared and acylated with aromatic carboxylic or oxycarbonic acids to produce 85 analogues of the parent drugs. The compounds were profiled by electrophysiology in Xenopus oocytes expressing human nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subtypes α7, α3β2, α4β2, α3β4, or α4β4. Characterization of selected compounds revealed eight inhibitors of the α7 nicotinic receptor and three positive allosteric modulators of the α3β2 nAChR.

EVP-6124, (R)-7-chloro-N-quinuclidin-3-yl)benzo[b]thiophene-2-carboxamide, is a novel partial agonist of alpha 7 neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) that was evaluated here in vitro and in vivo. In binding and functional experiments, EVP-6124 showed selectivity for alpha 7 nAChRs and did not activate or inhibit heteromeric alpha 4 beta 2 nAChRs. EVP-6124 had good brain penetration and an adequate exposure time. EVP-6124 (0.3 mg/kg, p.o.) significantly restored memory function in scopolamine-treated rats (0.1 mg/kg, i.p.) in an object recognition task (ORT). Although donepezil at 0.1 mg/kg, p.o. or EVP-6124 at 0.03 mg/kg, p.o. did not improve memory in this task, co-administration of these sub-efficacious doses fully restored memory. In a natural forgetting test, an ORT with a 24 h retention time. EVP-6124 improved memory at 0.3 mg/kg, p.o. This improvement was blocked by the selective alpha 7 nAChR antagonist methyllycaconitine (0.3 mg/kg, i.p. or 10 mu g, i.c.v.). In co-application experiments of EVP-6124 with acetylcholine, sustained exposure to EVP-6124 in functional investigations in oocytes caused desensitization at concentrations greater than 3 nM, while lower concentrations (0.3-1 nM) caused an increase in the acetylcholine-evoked response. These actions were interpreted as representing a co-agonist activity of EVP-6124 with acetylcholine on alpha 7 nAChRs. The concentrations of EVP-6124 that resulted in physiological potentiation were consistent with the free drug concentrations in brain that improved memory performance in the ORT. These data suggest that the selective partial agonist EVP-6124 improves memory performance by potentiating the acetylcholine response of alpha 7 nAChRs and support new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of cognitive impairment. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder'.

Hierarchical in silico screening protocols against the agonist bound acetylcholine binding protein (AChBP) crystal structure were efficient in identifying novel chemotypes for AChBP and the human α7 receptor. Two hit structures were cocrystallized with AChBP revealing intermolecular cation-π interactions with loop C but lacking intermolecular hydrogen bonding. The compounds act as competitive α7 receptor antagonists and as non-competitive α4β2 receptor inhibitors. These results underline the usability of AChBP in structure-based in silico screening strategies in finding novel scaffolds for the α7 receptor, but also illustrates some limitations of using AChBP as bait to find competitive α4β2 receptor ligands and α7 receptor agonists. © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Virtual analogues (1167860 compounds) of the nicotinic α7-receptor (α7 nAChR) ligands PNU-282,987 and SSR180711 were generated from the chemical universe database GDB-11 by extracting all aliphatic diamine analogues of the aminoquinuclidine and 1,4-diazabicyclo[3.2.2]nonane scaffolds of these ligands and converting them to the corresponding aryl amides using five different aromatic acyl groups. The library was ranked by docking to the nicotinic binding site of the acetylcholine binding protein (AChBP, 1UW6.pdb) using Autodock and Glide. Thirty-eight ligands derived from the best docking hits were synthesized and tested for modulation of the acetylcholine signal at the human α7 nAChR receptor expressed in Xenopus oocytes, leading to competitive and noncompetitive antagonists with IC50 = 5-7 μM. These experiments demonstrate the first example of using GDB in a fragment-based approach by diversifying the scaffold of known drugs.

Docking of randomly selected compounds from the chemical universe database GDB-11, which contains all organic molecules up to 11 atoms of C, N, O, F possible under consideration of simple chemical stability and synthetic feasibility rules, into the NMDA receptor glycine site (1pb7.pdb) lead to the identification of 3-(aminomethyl)piperazine-2,5-dione 3 and its close analog 5-(aminomethyl)piperazine-2,3-dione 4 as possible new ligands for this drug target, which is implicated in synaptic plasticity, neuronal development, learning and memory. Synthesis of these compounds in 4 and 6 steps, respectively, and testing by radioligand displacement assays and electrophysiological measurements in Xenopus oocytes show that while 4 is inactive, 3 is indeed an inhibitor of glycine, with an estimated KD of 50 μM.

Acetylcholine binding protein (AChBP) is widely considered as a functional and structural homologue of the ligand binding domain of Cys-loop receptors. We report the use of AChBP as template to identify ligands for the nicotinic receptors (nAChRs). An in silico screening protocol was set up and applied to crystal structures of AChBP. Several ligands containing a dibenzosuberyl moiety were identified and shown to bind with high affinity to AChBP and alpha7 nAChRs. Two high affinity ligands were cocrystallized with AChBP, revealing the binding mode in the orthosteric site. Functional studies revealed that these two ligands caused inhibition of the alpha7, alpha4beta2, and 5HT(3) receptors. The noncompetive blockade of the receptors suggests that these compounds act by steric hindrance of the channel. The analysis of the dual binding mode of these dibenzosuberyl-containing compounds can lead to better understanding of the complex mode of action of similar tricyclic ligands on Cys-loop receptors. ispartof: JOURNAL OF MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY vol:52 issue:8 pages:2372-2383 ispartof: location:United States status: published

Drug development faces the ever-increasing challenge of discovering new bioactive small molecules that have not already been investigated in the more than 150-year history of medicinal chemistry. [1] This problem is particularly critical for drug targets that require very small organic ligands, for which the range of potential structures is limited. One possible way to overcome this difficulty would be to search through the entire chemical space of these small molecules using virtual screening tools and to identify promising ligands for synthesis and testing. Herein we report the first example of such an approach for ligands of the N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor glycine site. This receptor is an important drug target implicated in synaptic plasticity, neuronal development, learning, and memory. Inhibiting the NMDA receptor may help prevent neuronal cell death caused by glutamate excitotoxicity in acute and chronic neurodegenerative disorders such as stroke, epilepsy, Huntington’s, and Alzheimer’s disease. [2] Starting with our recently reported chemical universe database (GDB) that lists all compounds of C, N, O, and F up to 11 atoms obeying simple stability and synthetic feasibility rules, [3] we show that virtual screening followed by synthesis and testing leads to several new NMDA glycine site ligands. Both ligand binding assays and functional investigations reveal that the identified ligands interact with the glycine binding site of the NDMA receptors, inhibiting receptor function by direct competition with glycine. The crystal structure of the NMDA receptor glycine site was recently reported. [4] Glycine is bound through a series of hydrogen bonds at the bottom of a narrow channel, leaving limited free space. The known NMDA glycine site ligands are indeed very small analogues of glycine, such as d-alanine and dserine, [5] d-cycloserine, [6] and small cyclic amino acids, [7] sug

Certain mutations in specific parts of the neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunit genes CHRNA4, CHRNB2, and probably CHRNA2, can cause autosomal dominant nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy (ADNFLE). All but one of the known causative mutations are located in the second transmembrane region (TM2), which serves as the major ion poreforming domain of the receptor. Functional characterization of these ADNFLE mutations has shown that although each mutant exhibits specific properties, they all confer a gain of function with increased sensitivity to acetylcholine. In this work, we characterize the second and third ADNFLE-associated mutations that are external to TM2 but affect different amino acid residues within the third transmembrane region (TM3). The two new CHRNB2 mutations were identified in three families of Turkish Cypriot, Scottish, and English origin. These TM3 mutations elicit the same gain of function pathomechanism as observed for the TM2 mutations with enhanced acetylcholine sensitivity, despite their unusual localization within the gene. Electrophysiological experiments, including single channel measurements, revealed that incorporation of these new mutant subunits does not affect the conductance of the ionic pore but increases the probability of opening. Determination of the sensitivity to nicotine for nAChRs carrying mutations in TM2 and TM3 showed clear differences in the direction and the extent to which the window current for nicotine sensitivity was shifted for individual mutations, indicating differences in pharmacogenomic properties that are not readily correlated with increased ACh affinity.

The α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) belongs to the family of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels and is involved in fast synaptic signaling. In this study, we take advantage of a recently identified chimera of the extracellular domain of the native α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and acetylcholine binding protein, termed α7-AChBP. This chimeric receptor was used to conduct an innovative fragment-library screening in combination with X-ray crystallography to identify allosteric binding sites. One allosteric site is surface-exposed and is located near the N-terminal α-helix of the extracellular domain. Ligand binding at this site causes a conformational change of the α-helix as the fragment wedges between the α-helix and a loop homologous to the main immunogenic region of the muscle α1 subunit. A second site is located in the vestibule of the receptor, in a preexisting intrasubunit pocket opposite the agonist binding site and corresponds to a previously identified site involved in positive allosteric modulation of the bacterial homolog ELIC. A third site is located at a pocket right below the agonist binding site. Using electrophysiological recordings on the human α7 nAChR we demonstrate that the identified fragments, which bind at these sites, can modulate receptor activation. This work presents a structural framework for different allosteric binding sites in the α7 nAChR and paves the way for future development of novel allosteric modulators with therapeutic potential.

Mutations in nAChRs are found in a rare form of nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy (ADNFLE). Previously, some nAChR mutations have been described that are associated with additional neurological features such as psychiatric disorders or cognitive defects. Here, we report a new CHRNB2 mutation located in transmembrane region 3 (M3), outside the known ADNFLE mutation cluster. The CHRNB2 mutation I312M, which occurred de novo in twins, markedly increases the receptor's sensitivity to acetylcholine. Phenotypically, the mutation is associated not only with typical ADNFLE, but also with distinct deficits in memory. The cognitive problems are most obvious in tasks requiring the organization and storage of verbal information.

The structural reorganizations occurring on the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) during activation and subsequent desensitization have been investigated through time-resolved photoaffinity labeling using a photoactivatable nicotinic agonist. [(3)H]AC5 is a photosensitive nicotinic probe with high affinity for the desensitized state of the Torpedo marmorata receptor (K(D) = 5 nM) that displays full agonist activity on the Torpedo californica receptor expressed in oocytes (EC(50) = 1.2 microM). Photoaffinity labeling of this receptor in the desensitized state showed a predominant specific labeling of gamma and delta subunits, whereas the alpha subunit was barely labeled. Using a stopped-flow device combined with a flash photolysis quenching system, we investigated the covalent mapping of the subunits as a function of incubation time of the receptor with [(3)H]AC5 (17 ms-1.25 h). During agonist-induced desensitization, specific labeling increased substantially, with similar time constants for gamma and delta subunits (0.016 s(-1)), whereas labeling of the alpha subunit remained relatively low. Therefore, the repartition of radioactivity shifted during desensitization from a weak but predominant labeling of the alpha and gamma subunits toward a substantial labeling of gamma and delta subunits. The observed time-dependent labeling pattern together with AC5 docking into a homology model of the T. californica nAChR suggest a subunit reorganization during agonist-induced desensitization, leading to a tightly packed arrangement that corresponds to a stable high affinity state for agonists.

Acetylcholine (ACh) has been recognized for a long time as a major neurotransmitter in the retina, however, little is known about the contribution of acetylcholine receptors in synaptic processing. Moreover, even less information is available concerning their role during development. To address this question further, we examined the physiological and pharmacological properties of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in retinal ganglion cells from embryonic (E) 12-18-day-old Leghorn chicks. Patch-clamp recordings in whole-cell configuration revealed that at E12 approximately 21% of the ganglion cells responded to acetylcholine pulses with inward currents. The number of responsive cells progressively increased to 57% at E15 to reach up to 15 positive cells out of 15 cells tested at E18. Acetylcholine-evoked responses could be subdivided, according to their time course, into fast and slowly desensitizing. Taking advantage of the selectivity of the frog toxin epibatidine (Epi), that preferentially activates heteromeric neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, we compared the currents evoked by this toxin vs. the effects of acetylcholine. A further characterization of the receptor diversity during development was to assess their sensitivity to the alpha-conotoxin MII (alpha-CTX-MII), which has been shown to preferentially block alpha6- and alpha3beta2-containing receptors. These data demonstrate that ganglion cells of the chick retina express multiple receptor subtypes that progressively develop as a function of retina maturation.

Summary: Purpose: To identify and characterize the mutation(s) causing nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy in a German extended family. Methods: Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunit genes were screened by direct sequencing. Once a CHRNA4 mutation was identified, its biophysical and pharmacologic properties were characterized by expression experiments in Xenopus oocytes. Results: We report a new CHRNA4 mutation, causing a α4-T265I amino acid exchange at the extracellular end of the second transmembrane domain (TM). Functional studies of α4-T265I revealed an increased ACh sensitivity of the mutated receptors. α4-T265I is associated with an unusual low penetrance of the epilepsy phenotype. Sequencing of the TM1-TM3 parts of the 1 known nAChR subunits did not support a two-locus model involving a second nAChR sequence variation. Conclusions: nAChR mutations found in familial epilepsy are not always associated with an autosomal dominant mode of inheritance. α4-T265I is the first nAChR allele showing a markedly reduced penetrance consistent with a major gene effect. The low penetrance of the mutation is probably caused by unknown genetic or environmental factors or both.

We present herein the cloning of the human nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha9-ortholog and the identification of a new alpha-like subunit (alpha10) that shares 58% identity with alpha9. Whereas alpha10 fails to produce functional receptors alone, it promoted robust acetylcholine-evoked currents when coinjected with alpha9. The presence of alpha10 modifies the physiological and pharmacological properties of the alpha9 receptor indicating that the two subunits coassemble in a single functional receptor. Fusing the N-terminal domain of alpha9 with the rest of the alpha10-cDNA yielded a functional alpha9:alpha10-chimera that displays the acetylcholine binding properties of alpha9 and ionic pore characteristics of alpha10-containing receptors. In addition, alpha9- and alpha10-subunit mRNAs show limited similar tissue distribution patterns and are expressed in cochlea, pituitary gland, and keratinocytes. These data suggest that, in vivo, alpha9-containing receptors coassemble with alpha10-subunit.

The modulation of neurotransmitter receptors by various substances can reflect important physiological mechanisms involved in the regulation of neural function. Furthermore, such substances, in particular specific allosteric modulators, can reveal promising therapeutic targets for diseases of the nervous system. From this perspective, we investigated the effects of the steroid hormone estradiol on human neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors expressed either in Xenopus laevis oocytes or human embryonic kidney cells. Acetylcholine-evoked currents were potentiated both by pre- and coapplications of estradiol in alpha4beta2 and alpha4beta4 receptors, but not in alpha3beta2 or alpha3beta4 receptors. The reversible potentiation of alpha4-containing receptors could be induced within seconds in X. laevis oocytes and at micromolar concentrations of estradiol. The potentiation was greatest for responses evoked by low concentrations of acetylcholine, resulting in an apparent increase of receptor affinity. At the single channel level, estradiol potentiation resulted from an increase in opening probability. Finally, the use of functional chimeric or truncated alpha4 subunits demonstrated that a site at the C-terminal tail of the alpha4 subunit is required for estradiol potentiation. These results suggest the presence of a specific site at the human nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha4 subunit through which estradiol can cause an allosteric potentiation of acetylcholine-evoked responses.

S 47445 is a novel positive allosteric modulator of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid (AMPA) receptors (AMPA-PAM). S 47445 enhanced glutamate's action at AMPA receptors on human and rat receptors and was inactive at NMDA and kainate receptors. Potentiation did not differ among the different AMPA receptors subtypes (GluA1/2/4 flip and flop variants) (EC50 between 2.5-5.4 μM), except a higher EC50 value for GluA4 flop (0.7 μM) and a greater amount of potentiation on GluA1 flop. A low concentration of S 47445 (0.1 μM) decreased receptor response decay time of GluA1flop/GluA2flip AMPA receptors and increased the sensitivity to glutamate. Furthermore, S 47445 (0.1 and 0.3 μM) in presence of repetitive glutamate pulses induced a progressive potentiation of the glutamate-evoked currents from the second pulse of glutamate confirming a rapid-enhancing effect of S 47445 at low concentrations. The potentiating effect of S 47445 (1 μM) was concentration-dependently reversed by the selective AMPA receptor antagonist GYKI52466 demonstrating the selective modulatory effect of S 47445 on AMPA receptors. Using an AMPA-kainate chimera approach, it was confirmed that S 47445 binds to the common binding pocket of AMPA-PAMs. S 47445 did not demonstrate neurotoxic effect against glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity in vitro, in contrast significantly protected rat cortical neurons at 10 μM. S 47445 was shown to improve both episodic and spatial working memory in adult rodents at 0.3 mg/kg, as measured in the natural forgetting condition of object recognition and T-maze tasks. Finally, no deleterious effect on spontaneous locomotion and general behavior was observed up to 1000 mg/kg of S 47445 given acutely in rodents, neither occurrence of convulsion or tremors. Collectively, these results indicate that S 47445 is a potent and selective AMPA-PAM presenting procognitive and potential neuroprotective properties. This drug is currently evaluated in clinical phase 2 studies in Alzheimer's disease and in Major Depressive Disorder.

International audience; Desensitization is a general property of ligand-gated ion channels. Because of a wide array of available subunit combinations, it generates different time constants for channel closure, thereby modulating the processing of information in the brain. Within the family of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), alpha 3 beta 2 and alpha 3 beta 4 receptors display contrasting properties of desensitization. When measured using two-electrode voltage-clamp in Xenopus oocytes, desensitization results in current decreases 2 s after initiation of acetylcholine application by 94% for alpha 3 beta 2 receptors, but only by 6% in the case of alpha 3 beta 4 receptors. Desensitization was analyzed by inserting different portions of the beta2 into the beta 4 subunit. Residues 1--212 of the beta2 subunit were able to confer 78% desensitization in 2 s, while smaller chimeras revealed desensitization in 2 s conferred by residues 1--42 alone to a level of 50%, by residues 72--89 to a level of 74%, and by residues 96--212 to a level of 77%. Some long-term (25 min) effects of desensitization driven by acetylcholine were found to rely partially on the same elements, including an enhancement mediated by residues 1--95 and 96--212 of the beta 2 subunit individually. Our results reveal that desensitization relies independently on diverse portions of the extracellular domain of the beta 2 subunit. Phenotype of alpha 3 beta 4 involves, in contrast, complex structural requirements involving residues dispersed throughout the entire N-terminal domain of the beta 4 subunit.

Interest in the field of nicotinic receptors has been recently stimulated both by the discovery of the potential therapeutic effects of new agonists, and by the discovery of an association between nicotinic receptor mutations and human neurological diseases. Expression of human receptors in an exogenous system allows their study in isolation. Receptors reconstituted by pairwise injection of either alpha4 or alpha3 with beta2 or beta4 subunits displayed important differences between the resulting receptor subtypes. These results were further compared with those obtained with alpha3:alpha4 fusion proteins. The modifications of either the ligand-binding site in the N-terminal domain or in the ionic pore domain were found to affect the pharmacological properties of the receptors. Finally, the analysis of non-natural derivatives of epibatidine demonstrates how an agonist can be modified to be selective at one receptor subtype or to become an antagonist. These data are well explained on the basis of a three-state allosteric model.

The frog toxin epibatidine is one of the most powerful ligands of the neuronal nicotinic receptors and derivatives show promising possibilities for labeling in positron emission tomography studies. In an attempt to reduce epibatidine toxicity, new methyl derivatives were synthesized, tested in positron emission tomography imaging and in electrophysiology. labeling as well as physiological experiments highlighted the differences in sensitivity of the neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors between two methyl enantiomers and the reduction in sensitivity caused by introducing the methyl group. At present, epibatidine derivatives seem the most promising compounds for in vivo labeling of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

Different types of neurotransmitter receptors coexist within single neurons and must be targeted to discrete synaptic regions for proper function. In chick ciliary ganglion neurons, nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) containing alpha 3 and alpha 5 subunits are concentrated in the postsynaptic membrane, whereas alpha-bungarotoxin receptors composed of alpha 7 subunits are localized perisynaptically and excluded from the synapse. Using retroviral vector-mediated gene transfer in vivo, we show that the long cytoplasmic loop of alpha 3 targets chimeric alpha 7 subunits to the synapse and reduces endogenous nAChR surface levels, whereas the alpha 5 loop does neither. These results show that a particular domain of one subunit targets specific receptor subtypes to the interneuronal synapse in vivo. Moreover, our findings suggest a difference in the mechanisms that govern assembly of interneuronal synapses as compared to the neuromuscular junction in vertebrates.

1 Physiological and pharmacological properties of the human neuronal α4β2 nicotinic AChR and mutants found in patients suffering from autosomal dominant nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy (ADNFLE) were studied. 2 Investigations of nicotinic AChRs reconstituted in Xenopus oocytes with the control or mutated α4 subunits revealed that both mutation S248F as well as the Leucine insertion (776ins3) result in major but different changes in the physiological and pharmacological properties of the receptors. 3 Mutation S248F causes a decrease in apparent affinity to ACh of about 7 fold. In addition, this receptor already desensitizes during exposure to agonist concentration 3000 times lower than the control. 4 776ins3 provokes a 10 fold increase of apparent ACh affinity, an increase in the IC50 caused by prolonged ACh exposures and a slowing down of the response decay. 5 At saturating ACh concentration cells expressing the S248F mutant display average currents that are about five times smaller than control. 6 When measured at very low concentration, agonist sensitivities of the control and mutated receptors to ACh, nicotine and epibatidine exhibit differences that match those observed for higher agonist concentrations. 7 Mutation 776ins3 increases the apparent efficacy to cytisine. 8 Data presented herein suggest that mutation S248F mainly affects the desensitization properties of the receptor while the leucine insertion (776ins3) increases the probability of transition to the active state. Although these mutations differentially affect the receptor properties they both result in reduced permeability to calcium and enhanced desensitization sensitivity that might account for the ADNFLE phenotype. British Journal of Pharmacology (1998) 125, 751–760; doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0702154

International audience; Mutation of the conserved leucine residue, in the second transmembrane domain of the neuronal alpha7 acetylcholine receptor to a threonine (L247T) causes pleiotropic alterations of receptor properties. In this study we examined the effects of competitive inhibitors on the alpha7-L247T physiological responses. While the alpha7 competitive inhibitor dihydro-beta-erythroidine evoked a current comparable to that induced by ACh, other inhibitors such as methyllycaconitine (MLA) and alpha-bungarotoxin (alpha-Bgt) caused a blockade of alpha7-L247T to ACh activation. When applied in the absence of ACh, MLA or alpha-Bgt reduced the cell leakage current, showing that alpha7-L247T displays a significant fraction (10%) of spontaneously open channels. These data can be interpreted in terms of an allosteric model, assuming that the L247T mutant possesses a low isomerization constant L and that MLA and alpha-Bgt stabilize the closed, resting state.

Autosomal dominant nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy (ADNFLE) is the first, and to date only, idiopathic epilepsy for which a specific mutation has been found. A missense mutation in the critical M2 domain of the alpha4 subunit of the neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (CHRNA4) has been recently identified in one large Australian pedigree. Here we describe a novel mutation in the M2 domain of the CHRNA4 gene in a Norwegian family. Three nucleotides (GCT) were inserted at nucleotide position 776 into the coding region for the C-terminal end of the M2 domain. Physiological investigations of the receptor reconstituted with the mutated CHRNA4 subunit reveal that this insertion does not prevent the receptor function but increases its apparent affinity for ACh. In addition, this mutant receptor shows a significantly lower calcium permeability that, at the cellular level, may correspond to a loss of function. Comparison of the two mutations identified so far in families with ADNFLE illustrates that different mutations can result in similar phenotypes.

Ligand-gated channels (LGCs) play a fundamental role in the fast transmission of electrical activity from neuron to neuron and/or to effector cells. Studies of LGCs in isolation have become possible since the identification of genes coding for these membrane proteins together with the establishment of reconstitution techniques in host systems. Methods for electrophysiological investigations of LGCs reconstituted either in the Xenopus oocytes or stably tranfected in cell lines are discussed. Functional studies of reconstituted receptors enable fast determination of LGCs' pharmacological profiles and comparison of their physiological properties. Combination of molecular engineering with physiological measurements allows studies with unpreceeding resolution and it is now possible to examine at the amino-acid level the contribution of some residues in the formation of the ligand-binding site or the ionic channel domains.

Two cDNAs (Ce21 and Ce13) were isolated from a Caenorhabditis elegans library screened with a probe encoding conserved domains of the avian alpha5 neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR). Alignments to all nAChR subunits in the EMBL/Swissprot data base demonstrate that the Ce21 protein most resembles the vertebrate alpha7 subunit, whereas Ce13 is closest to the ARD subunit of Drosophila. The corresponding genes were isolated and hybridized to YAC grids: Ce21 maps on chromosome V near the his-23 gene, and Ce13 on chromosome I very near or at unc-29. The structure of the Ce21 gene was compared with that of other vertebrate and invertebrate nAChR genes and found to share by far the largest number of conserved splice sites with the vertebrate alpha7 gene. Upon expression in the Xenopus oocyte system, the Ce21 subunit assembled into a functional homomeric nAChR, whose properties were compared with those of the chicken alpha7 receptor. The anthelmintic nicotinic agonist levamisole is unable to activate the Ce21 and alpha7 receptors, but efficiently antagonises their responses to ACh. Both receptors desensitise quickly upon agonist application, are more sensitive to nicotine than to acetylcholine, and are efficiently blocked by dihydro-beta-erythroidine. Unlike the alpha7 receptor, however, the Ce21 receptor is relatively insensitive to methyllycaconitine and to alpha-bungarotoxin. The similarities in protein sequence, gene structure and physiological properties between alpha7 and Ce21 suggest a very ancient lineage for the alpha7 class of nAChR subunits.

1. The recently isolated compound methyllycaconitine (MLA) is a plant toxin which is a competitive inhibitor of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). We found that homomeric alpha 7 receptors display a very high sensitivity to MLA with an IC50 in the picomolar range. 2. The competitive nature of the alpha 7 MLA blockade was reinforced by the observation that this compound has no action on wild-type serotoninergic receptors (5-HT3), whereas it is a powerful antagonist of chimaeric receptors alpha 7-5-HT3. 3. The time course of MLA inhibition of the wild-type (WT) alpha 7 follows a monotonic exponential decay whose time constant is proportional to the MLA concentration and could be described by a bimolecular mechanism with a forward rate constant (k+) of 2.7 x 10(7) S-1 M-1. In contrast, recovery from MLA inhibition displays an S-shaped time course that is incompatible with a simple bimolecular reaction. 4. Given the pentameric nature of the neuronal nicotinic receptors, a linear chain model, including five putative MLA binding sites corresponding to the homomeric nature of alpha 7, is proposed. 5. Both onset and recovery data obtained on the alpha 7 wild-type receptor are adequately described by this model assuming that a single MLA molecule is sufficient to block receptor function. 6. Analysis of MLA blockade and recovery of reconstituted heteromeric alpha 4 beta 2 receptors reveals, as expected, a time course compatible with only two binding sites for the toxin and, thus, further supports the validity of our model.

GABA A receptors are pentameric ligand-gated ion channels involved in fast inhibitory neurotransmission and are allosterically modulated by the anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and sedative-hypnotic benzodiazepines. Here we show that the prokaryotic homolog ELIC also is activated by GABA and is modulated by benzodiazepines with effects comparable to those at GABA A receptors. Crystal structures reveal important features of GABA recognition and indicate that benzodiazepines, depending on their concentration, occupy two possible sites in ELIC. An intrasubunit site is adjacent to the GABA-recognition site but faces the channel vestibule. A second intersubunit site partially overlaps with the GABA site and likely corresponds to a low-affinity benzodiazepine-binding site in GABA A receptors that mediates inhibitory effects of the benzodiazepine flurazepam. Our study offers a structural view how GABA and benzodiazepines are recognized at a GABA-activated ion channel.

alpha 6 beta 2* Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are expressed in selected central nervous system areas, where they are involved in striatal dopamine (DA) release and its behavioral consequences, and other still uncharacterized brain activities. alpha 6 beta 2* receptors are selectively blocked by the alpha-conotoxins MII and PIA, which bear a characteristic N-terminal amino acid tail [arginine (R), aspartic acid (D), and proline (P)]. We synthesized a group of PIA-related peptides in which R1 was mutated or the RDP motif gradually removed. Binding and striatal DA release assays of native rat alpha 6 beta 2* receptors showed that the RDP sequence, and particularly residue R1, is essential for the activity of PIA. On the basis of molecular modeling analyses, we synthesized a hybrid peptide (RDP-MII) that had increased potency (7-fold) and affinity (13-fold) for alpha 6 beta 2* receptors but not for the very similar alpha 3 beta 2* subtype. As docking studies also suggested that E11 of MII might be a key residue engendering alpha 6 beta 2* vs. alpha 3 beta 2* selectivity, we prepared MII[E11R] and RDP-MII[E11R] peptides. Their affinity and potency for native alpha 6 beta 2* receptors were similar to those of their parent analogues, whereas, for the oocyte expressed rat alpha 3 beta 2* subtype, they showed a 31- and 14-fold lower affinity and 21- and 3.5-fold lower potency. Thus, MII[E11R] and RDP-MII[E11R] are potent antagonists showing a degree of alpha 6 beta 2* vs. alpha 3 beta 2* selectivity in vivo.-Pucci, L., Grazioso, G., Dallanoce, C., Rizzi, L., De Micheli, C., Clementi, F., Bertrand, S., Bertrand, D., Longhi, R., De Amici, M., Gotti, C. Engineering of alpha-conotoxin MII-derived peptides with increased selectivity for native alpha 6 beta 2* nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. FASEB J. 25, 3775-3789 (2011). www.fasebj.org

The neuronal nicotinic alpha 7 (nAChR) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT3) receptors are ligand-gated ion channels with a homologous topological organization and have activation and desensitization reactions in common. Yet these homo-oligomeric receptors differ in the pharmacology of their binding sites for agonists and competitive antagonists, and in their sensitivity to Ca2+ ions. The alpha 7 channel is highly permeable to Ca2+ ions and external Ca2+ ions potentiate, in an allosteric manner, the permeability response to acetylcholine, as shown for other neuronal nAChRs. The 5HT3 channel, in contrast, is not permeable to Ca2+ ions, but blocked by them. To assign these properties to delimited domains of the primary structure, we constructed several recombinant chimaeric alpha 7-5HT3 receptors. We report here that one of the constructs expresses a functional receptor that contains the serotonergic channel still blocked by Ca2+ ions, but is activated by nicotinic ligands and potentiated by external Ca2+ ions.

The relative permeability for sodium, potassium, and calcium of chicken alpha 7 neuronal nicotinic receptor was investigated by mutagenesis of the channel domain M2. Mutations in the "intermediate ring" of negatively charged residues, located at the cytoplasmic end of M2 (site 1), reduce calcium permeability without significantly modifying other functional properties (activation and desensitization) of the receptor; a similar change of ion selectivity is also noticed when mutations at site 1 are done in the context of a receptor mutant that conducts ions in a desensitized state. Moreover, mutations of two adjacent rings of leucines at the synaptic end of M2 (site 2) have multiple effects. They abolish calcium permeability, increase the apparent affinity for acetylcholine by 10- to 100-fold, augment Hill numbers (up to 4.6-5.0) of acetylcholine dose-response relationships, slow rates of ionic response onset, and lower the extent of desensitization. Mutations at these two topographically distinct sites within M2 selectively alter calcium transport without affecting the relative permeabilities for sodium and potassium.

Analyses of the ionic pore of ligand-gated ion channels at the amino acid level reveal a structural and functional stratification of the M2 channel domain. Mutations in the equatorial and outer regions affect channel gating, whereas mutations of other amino acid rings alter ionic permeability or selectivity.

Adverse effects have limited the clinical use of telithromycin. Preferential inhibition of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) at the neuromuscular junction (α3β2 and NMJ), the ciliary ganglion of the eye (α3β4 and α7), and the vagus nerve innervating the liver (α7) could account for the exacerbation of myasthenia gravis, the visual disturbance, and the liver failure seen with telithromycin use. The studies presented here enable the prediction of expected side effects of macrolides in development, such as solithromycin (CEM-101).

The putative channel-forming MII domains of the nicotinic, gamma-aminobutyric acid type A, and glycine receptors contain a highly conserved leucine residue. Mutation of this hydrophobic amino acid in the neuronal nicotinic receptor alpha 7 (Leu-247), reconstituted in Xenopus oocytes, modifies the ionic response to acetylcholine and alters desensitization. Furthermore, the Leu----Thr (L247T) mutant has two conducting states (46 pS and 80 pS), in contrast with the wild-type (WT) receptor, which has only one (45 pS). We now show that this mutant possesses a rather paradoxical pharmacology: antagonists of the WT receptor such as dihydro-beta-erythroidin, hexamethonium, or (+)-tubocurarine elicit ionic currents when applied to the L247T alpha 7 mutant and these responses are blocked by alpha-bungarotoxin. Furthermore, prolonged application of acetylcholine causes desensitization in the WT but leads to a potentiation of the responses to acetylcholine or dihydro-beta-erythroidin in the mutant. These data are consistent with a scheme in which mutation of Leu-247 renders a desensitized state in the WT channel a conducting state. They also strengthen the proposal that, in the WT, some competitive antagonists may stabilize desensitized states. Finally, these observations may shed light on properties of other ion channels, in particular the glutamate receptors, which display multiple conductance levels associated with various pharmacological agents.

International audience; Three aromatic amino acids, Tyr92, Trp148 and Tyr187 belonging to three separate domains of the α7‐subunit of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor were mutated to phenylalanine, and the electrophysiological response of the resulting mutant receptors analyzed in the Xenopus oocyte expression system. All mutations significantly decreased the apparent affinities for acetylcholine and nicotine, and to a lesser extent, those for the competitive antagonists dihydro‐β‐erythroidine and α‐bungarotoxin. Other properties investigated, such as the voltage dependency of the ion response as well as its sensitivity to the open channel blocker QX222, were not significantly changed, indicating that the mutations affected selectively the recognition of cholinergic ligands by the receptor protein. The maximal rates for the rapid desensitization process were slightly modified, suggesting that the contribution of Tyr92, Trp148 and Tyr187 to the binding area might differ in the various conformations of the nicotinic receptor. Other mutations at nearby positions (S94N, W153F, G151D and G82E) did not affect the properties of the electrophysiological response. These data point to the functional significance of Tyr92, Trp148 and Tyr187 in the binding of cholinergic ligands and ion channel activation of the nicotinic receptor, thus supporting a multiple loop model [(1990) J. Biol. Chem. 265, 10430–10437] for the ligand binding area.

The alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), a homopentameric, rapidly activating and desensitizing ligand-gated ion channel with relatively high degree of calcium permeability, is expressed in the mammalian central nervous system, including regions associated with cognitive processing. Selective agonists targeting the alpha7 nAChR have shown efficacy in animal models of cognitive dysfunction. Use of positive allosteric modulators selective for the alpha7 receptor is another strategy that is envisaged in the design of active compounds aiming at improving attention and cognitive dysfunction. The recent discovery of novel positive allosteric modulators such as 1-(5-chloro-2-hydroxyphenyl)-3-(2-chloro-5-trifluoromethylphenyl)urea (NS-1738) and 1-(5-chloro-2,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-3-(5-methylisoxazol-3-yl)urea (PNU-120596) that are selective for the alpha7 nAChRs but display significant phenotypic differences in their profile of allosteric modulation, suggests that these molecules may act at different sites on the receptor. Taking advantage of the possibility to obtain functional receptors by the fusion of proteins domains from the alpha7 and the 5-HT(3) receptor, we examined the structural determinants required for positive allosteric modulation. This strategy revealed that the extracellular N-terminal domain of alpha7 plays a critical role in allosteric modulation by NS-1738. In addition, alpha7-5HT(3) chimeras harboring the M2-M3 segment showed that spontaneous activity in response to NS-1738, which confirmed the critical contribution of this small extracellular segment in the receptor gating. In contrast to NS-1738, positive allosteric modulation by PNU-120596 could not be restored in the alpha7-5HT(3) chimeras but was selectively observed in the reverse 5HT(3)-alpha7 chimera. All together, these data illustrate the existence of distinct allosteric binding sites with specificity of different profiles of allosteric modulators and open new possibilities to investigate the alpha7 receptor function.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are homo- or heteropentameric proteins belonging to the superfamily of receptor channels including the glycine and GABA-A receptors. Affinity labelling and mutagenesis experiments indicated that the M2 transmembrane segment of each subunit lines the ion channel and is coiled into an alpha-helix. Comparison of the M2 sequence of the cation-selective alpha 7 nicotinic receptor to that of the anion-selective alpha 1 glycine receptor identified amino acids involved in charge selectivity. Mutations of the alpha 7 homo-oligomeric receptor within (or near) M2, namely E237A, V251T and a proline insertion P236' were shown to convert the ionic selectivity of alpha 7 from cationic to anionic. Systematic analysis of each of these three mutations supports the notion that the conversion of ionic selectivity results from a local structural reorganization of the 234-238 loop. The 234-238 coiled loop, previously shown to lie near the narrowest portion of the channel, is thus proposed to contribute directly to the charge selectivity filter. A possible functional analogy with the voltage-gated ion channels and related receptors is discussed.

The wide use of antibiotics and the development of resistance is a major health concern and, despite their relatively severe side effects, aminoglycoside antibiotics are still used in clinics. Effects of seven aminoglycosides were investigated at the human homomeric alpha7 and heteromeric alpha4beta2 neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. All aminoglycosides tested inhibited the acetylcholine-evoked responses with more pronounced effects at alpha7 than at alpha4beta2. Neomycin displayed higher blockade with a half inhibition in the nanomolar range at low calcium concentration and in the micromolar range in physiological calcium concentration but still exerted blockade below the concentration used in the clinic. These data suggest that some of their side effects may be attributable to their interactions with neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

We described a family of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunits underlying cholinergic transmission in the central nervous system (CNS) of the mollusc Lymnaea stagnalis. By using degenerate PCR cloning, we identified 12 subunits that display a high sequence similarity to nAChR subunits, of which 10 are of the α-type, 1 is of the β-type, and 1 was not classified because of insufficient sequence information. Heterologous expression of identified subunits confirms their capacity to form functional receptors responding to acetylcholine. The α-type subunits can be divided into groups that appear to underlie cation-conducting (excitatory) and anion-conducting (inhibitory) channels involved in synaptic cholinergic transmission. The expression of the Lymnaea nAChR subunits, assessed by real time quantitative PCR and in situ hybridization, indicates that it is localized to neurons and widespread in the CNS, with the number and localization of expressing neurons differing considerably between subunit types. At least 10% of the CNS neurons showed detectable nAChR subunit expression. In addition, cholinergic neurons, as indicated by the expression of the vesicular ACh transporter, comprise ∼10% of the neurons in all ganglia. Together, our data suggested a prominent role for fast cholinergic transmission in the Lymnaea CNS by using a number of neuronal nAChR subtypes comparable with vertebrate species but with a functional complexity that may be much higher. © 2006 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.