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IntroductionWe examined whether educational attainment differentially contributes to cognitive reserve (CR) across race/ethnicity.MethodsA total of 1553 non-Hispanic Whites (Whites), non-Hispanic Blacks (Blacks), and Hispanics in the Washington Heights-Inwood Columbia Aging Project (WHICAP) completed structural magnetic resonance imaging. Mixture growth curve modeling was used to examine whether the effect of brain integrity indicators (hippocampal volume, cortical thickness, and white matter hyperintensity [WMH] volumes) on memory and language trajectories was modified by education across racial/ethnic groups.ResultsHigher educational attainment attenuated the negative impact of WMH burden on memory (β = -0.03; 99% CI: -0.071, -0.002) and language decline (β = -0.024; 99% CI:- 0.044, -0.004), as well as the impact of cortical thinning on level of language performance for Whites, but not for Blacks or Hispanics.DiscussionEducational attainment does not contribute to CR similarly across racial/ethnic groups.

Objectives Structural racism creates contextual stressors that disproportionately affect Black, relative to White, older adults in the United States and may contribute to worse cognitive health. We examined the extent to which interpersonal, community, and societal stressors uniquely explain Black–White disparities in initial memory and memory change. Methods The sample included 14,199 non-Latino Black and White older adults (M age = 68.32, 19.8% Black) from the U.S. Health and Retirement Study who completed psychosocial questionnaires at baseline and a word list memory task every 2 years over an 8-year period. Interpersonal, community, and societal stressors were operationalized as self-reported everyday discrimination, neighborhood physical disorder, and subjective societal status, respectively. Latent growth curves modeled longitudinal memory performance. Stressors were modeled simultaneously and allowed to correlate. Covariates included age, sex, education, wealth, parental education, and Southern residence. Results Compared to White participants, Black participants experienced more discrimination (β  = −0.004, standard error [ SE ] = 0.001, p  < .001), more neighborhood physical disorder (β  = −0.009, SE = 0.002, p  < .001), and lower perceived societal status (β  = −0.002, SE = 0.001, p  = .001), each of which uniquely mediated the racial disparity in initial memory. Sensitivity analyses utilizing proxy-imputed memory scores revealed an additional racial disparity in memory change, wherein Black participants evidenced a faster decline than White participants. This disparity in memory change was only uniquely mediated by more everyday discrimination among Black participants. Discussion Elements of structural racism may contribute to cognitive disparities via disproportionate stress experiences at multiple contextual levels among Black older adults. Future research should consider multilevel protective factors that buffer against negative impacts of racism on health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior research suggests that social relations may play a role in explaining individual differences in cognitive functioning in older adulthood. In particular, early life maternal relationship quality (MRQ) has been shown to be a strong predictor of later-life socioemotional outcomes and may also contribute to later-life cognitive outcomes. The current study aimed to examine longitudinal associations between retrospective early life MRQ and later-life episodic memory directly and indirectly through socioemotional pathways. Three waves of data spanning 6 years of the Health and Retirement Study were used (T1: 2008, T2: 2012, T3: 2014; n = 5,263, M[subscript age] = 69.31, SD = 10.75 at T1). A longitudinal mediation model tested the direct and indirect effects of retrospectively reported MRQ at T1 on T2 memory and latent change in memory from T2 to T3 through depressive symptoms, social network size, and loneliness at T2. Analyses revealed that better MRQ at T1 was associated with less loneliness and fewer depressive symptoms at T2, and in turn, each was independently associated with less decline in memory from T2 to T3. Overall, findings suggest an enduring effect of early life social experiences on later-life cognitive functioning through socioemotional pathways. These findings further highlight the necessity of taking an integrative and life course perspective when examining the relationship between social relations and cognition.

INTRODUCTION: Neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) has been linked to dementia, but the distribution of SES within a neighborhood may also matter. METHODS: Data from 460 (47% Black, 46% White) older adults from the Michigan Cognitive Aging Project were linked to census tract–level data from the National Neighborhood Data Archive (NaNDA). Neighborhood SES included two composites reflecting disadvantage and affluence. Neighborhood racial income inequality was the ratio of median incomes for White versus Black residents. Generalized estimating equations examined associations between neighborhood factors and cognitive domains. RESULTS: Neighborhood racial income inequality was uniquely associated with worse cognitive health, and these associations did not differ by participant race. Neighborhood disadvantage was only associated with worse cognitive health among Black participants. DISCUSSION: Both the level and racial distribution of SES within a neighborhood may be relevant for dementia risk. Racial differences in the level and impact of neighborhood SES contribute to dementia inequalities. Highlights: Black participants lived in neighborhoods with lower socioeconomic status (SES) than White participants, on average.Neighborhood SES and racial income inequality were associated with worse cognition.Effects of neighborhood racial income inequality did not differ across racial groups.Effects of neighborhood SES were only evident among Black participants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Sensory impairment is a hypothesized risk factor for cognitive decline; however, the psychosocial pathways are not well understood. We evaluated whether the association between visual impairment (VI) and cognitive decline was partially mediated via depressive symptoms, loneliness, or social activity. Methods: We used data from 2601 older adults enrolled in the Memory and Aging Project in 1997 and the Minority Aging Research Study in 2004 with neuropsychological tests across five domains measured annually for up to 16 years. VI was assessed with the Rosenbaum Pocket Vision Screener. Depressive symptoms, loneliness, and social activity were self‐reported using validated scales. We used structural equation models to estimate the associations of VI with baseline and change in cognitive function, directly and indirectly through each mediator (depressive symptoms, loneliness, and social activity). We evaluated mediation via "psychological distress" using a latent variable combining depressive symptoms and loneliness. Results: The association between VI and global cognitive decline was mediated via lower social activity (indirect effect) [95% confidence interval (CI)] of linear slope: −0.025 (−0.048, −0.011), via loneliness (−0.011 [95% CI: −0.028, −0.002]), and via psychological distress (−0.017 [95% CI: −0.042, −0.003]). We did not find sufficient evidence for mediation via depressive symptoms alone. Conclusions: The harmful effect of VI on cognitive decline may be partially mediated through loneliness and lower social activity. Key points: We evaluated whether psychosocial factors mediate the association between visual impairment and cognitive decline.With data from the Memory and Aging Project and the Minority Aging Research Study, we used structural equation models to estimate the total, direct, and indirect associations through each mediator (depressive symptoms, loneliness, lower social activity, and a latent variable, psychological distress, combining depressive symptoms and loneliness).We found evidence for partial mediation via social activity and loneliness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates religious involvement and depressive symptoms in Hispanic older adults in the United States. We hypothesized that private prayer, religious attendance, and religious belief would have an inverse association with depressive symptoms, and that these associations would be stronger among immigrants, compared to U.S.-born participants. This cross-sectional, within-group study included 1,566 participants from the Health and Retirement Study. Multivariate linear regression evaluated the association between religious involvement and depressive symptoms in the whole sample and in subgroups stratified by immigrant status. Overall, only more frequent religious attendance was associated with fewer depressive symptoms. Stratified models revealed an additional inverse association between private prayer and depressive symptoms only in the immigrant group. These findings may help incorporate religious preferences into mental health prevention and treatment to reduce depressive symptoms among older Hispanic adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) may be a risk factor for later-life cognitive disorders such as dementia; however, few studies have investigated underlying mechanisms, such as cardiovascular health and depressive symptoms, in a health disparities framework. Method: 418 community-dwelling adults (50% nonHispanic Black, 50% nonHispanic White) aged 55+ from the Michigan Cognitive Aging Project retrospectively reported on nine ACEs. Baseline global cognition was a z-score composite of five factor scores from a comprehensive neuropsychological battery. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. Cardiovascular health was operationalized through systolic blood pressure. A mediation model controlling for sociodemographics, childhood health, and childhood socioeconomic status estimated indirect effects of ACEs on global cognition via depressive symptoms and blood pressure. Racial differences were probed via t-tests and stratified models. Results: A negative indirect effect of ACEs on cognition was observed through depressive symptoms [ β = −.040, 95% CI (−.067, −.017)], but not blood pressure, for the whole sample. Black participants reported more ACEs (Cohen's d =.21), reported more depressive symptoms (Cohen's d =.35), higher blood pressure (Cohen's d =.41), and lower cognitive scores (Cohen's d = 1.35) compared to White participants. In stratified models, there was a negative indirect effect through depressive symptoms for Black participants [ β = −.074, 95% CI (−.128, −.029)] but not for White participants. Conclusions: These results highlight the need to consider racially patterned contextual factors across the life course. Such factors could exacerbate the negative impact of ACEs and related mental health consequences and contribute to racial disparities in cognitive aging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Educational attainment is a well-documented predictor of later-life cognition, but less is known about upstream contextual factors. This study aimed to identify which early-life contextual factors uniquely predict later-life global cognition and whether educational attainment mediates these relationships. Method: Participants were drawn from the Michigan Cognitive Aging Project (N = 485; M age = 63.51; SD age = 3.13; 50% non-Hispanic Black). Early-life exposures included U.S. region of elementary school (Midwest, South, Northeast), average parental education, household composition (number of adults (1, 2, 3+), number of children), school racial demographics (predominantly White, predominantly Black, diverse), self-reported educational quality, and school type (public/private). Later-life global cognition was operationalized with a factor score derived from a comprehensive neuropsychological battery. Sequential mediation models controlling for sociodemographics estimated total, direct, and indirect effects of early-life contextual factors on cognition through educational attainment (years). Results: Higher educational quality, higher parental education, and attending a private school were each associated with better cognition; attending a predominantly Black or diverse school and reporting three or more adults in the household were associated with lower cognition. After accounting for educational attainment, associations remained for educational quality, school type, and reporting three or more adults in the household. Indirect effects through educational attainment were observed for school region, educational quality, school racial demographics, and parental education. Conclusions: School factors appear to consistently predict later-life cognition more than household factors, highlighting the potential long-term benefits of school-level interventions for cognitive aging. Future research should consider additional mediators beyond educational attainment such as neighborhood resources and childhood adversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives This study examined the longitudinal association between loneliness and self-rated health (SRH), and whether there were race differences between non-Hispanic Black and White adults in these associations. Method A total of 1,407 participants were drawn Social Relations Study, a regional study of social relations across the life span with 3 waves of data collection in 1992, 2005, and 2015 (Wave 1, W1: M age = 50.28, 28% Black, 59% women). Cross-lagged structural equation models examined the association between loneliness and SRH over 3 waves. We adjusted for baseline age, gender, social network size, and depressive symptoms. Results There were no race differences in loneliness at any wave. Loneliness W1 was associated with Loneliness W2; Loneliness W2 was associated with Loneliness W3. We had similar findings for associations among SRH. However, only one of the cross-lagged paths was significant. Worse SRH W2 was associated with more Loneliness W3. The only path that varied across race was in the association between SRH W2 and Loneliness W3, and this path was significant only in Whites. Discussion Findings indicate that worse SRH at later midlife may increase risk for loneliness in later life, particularly for Whites. As a valid indicator of health, SRH can be used in the body of research on health correlates of loneliness as adults age. Use of the current sample of Black and White adults provides nuanced understanding in the ways in which racially diverse adults experience loneliness and should be useful in refining and developing culturally competent interventions for older adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Prior research indicates that depressive symptoms disproportionately affect cognition in non-Hispanic Blacks relative to non-Hispanic Whites. Depressive symptoms have been linked to worse global cognition in older adulthood through lower leisure activity engagement, but less is known regarding the distinct types of activities that drive these associations and whether associations involving depressive symptoms, leisure activities, and cognition differ across racial groups. Methods This cross-sectional study used data from the Michigan Cognitive Aging Project (n = 453, 52.80% Black, M age = 63.60 years). Principal components analysis identified 6 subtypes of leisure activities (cognitive, creative, community, physical, children, and games). Mediation models examined whether distinct leisure activity subtypes mediated the association between depressive symptoms and performance on a comprehensive neuropsychological battery and whether race moderated these associations. Results There were no racial differences in the level of depressive symptoms after adjusting for sociodemographic, socioeconomic, and health covariates. Only lower cognitive activity engagement mediated the negative association between depressive symptoms and global cognition. Multigroup models revealed that this indirect effect was only evident in Blacks, who showed a stronger negative association between depressive symptoms and cognitive activity engagement than Whites. After accounting for indirect effects, a direct effect of higher depressive symptoms on worse cognition remained and did not differ across racial groups. Discussion Depressive symptoms may disproportionately affect cognition among Blacks through a greater negative impact on engagement in cognitively stimulating activities that have been shown to promote cognitive reserve. Additional research is necessary to identify other mechanisms linking depressive symptoms and cognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Chronic stressors, experienced disproportionately by Black older adults, are a risk factor for memory impairment. Racially patterned stress exposure may contribute to higher rates of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD) among Black older adults compared with Whites, but less is known about the role of stress appraisal. This study examined whether chronic stress exposure mediates racial disparities in memory and whether stress appraisal moderates these associations. Methods Participants included 16,924 older adults (M age = 67.39, 21% Black) from the 2010 and 2012 waves of the Health and Retirement Study who completed measures of chronic stress exposure (health, financial, housing, relationships, and caregiving) and appraisal. Latent growth curves modeled longitudinal performance on a word list memory task over 6 years. Results Black older adults reported greater stress exposure than Whites, and greater stress exposure partially mediated Black–White disparities in initial memory (standardized indirect effect = −0.002, p =.009). However, Black older adults appraised stressors as less upsetting than Whites. While stress appraisal did not moderate links between stress exposure and memory, appraising stressors as less upsetting was independently associated with better initial memory. Thus, Black–White disparities in initial memory was partially offset by Black participants' appraisal of stressors as less upsetting (standardized indirect effect = 0.002, p =.016). Discussion Reducing chronic stress exposure may reduce racial disparities in ADRD risk. The counteractive effect of stress appraisal on Black–White disparities in episodic memory highlights resilience factors among Black older adults that should be characterized in future research to move beyond deficit models of ADRD inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]